Introduction:

Each library in the Database is updated regularly through online literature searches and the constant monitoring of new reports on the Internet. Most of the research studies and reports cited were obtained through the University of Pennsylvania library system. The academic disciplines searched include education, psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, social work, and health-related sources. Lists of article references are also reviewed to identify additional studies or materials. Other sources of information include research studies obtained from centers and agencies that address issues, such as poverty, child development, child welfare, and family support. Authors also send soon-to-be-published drafts of studies directly to NCOFF. Last, studies are identified through government reports. The type of documents included in the database are books, journal articles, theses, dissertations, reports, working papers, and conference proceedings.

FATHERS CARE -

A great part of the literature has focused on identifying the determinants of paternal participation. The antecedents most frequently identified are: maternal employment variables; paternal employment variables; parents' sex-role ideologies/socialization; and to some extent, demographic variables and characteristics of the child, such as gender or birth order. These variables frequently are condensed into three hypotheses: (1) the relative resource hypothesis, which posits that domestic work is allocated based on the resources each partner brings to the marriage, such as education level or occupational prestige; (2) the sex-role ideology/socialization hypothesis, which asserts that the allocation of domestic work depends on fathers' and mothers' sex-role ideology; and (3) the time-availability hypothesis, which asserts that the partner with the most time available will perform the most domestic work. Some studies emphasize the different kinds of paternal involvement, distinguishing between time spent in the presence of the child from time engaged in an activity with the child.

A second area of the literature attempts to identify determinants of paternal participation through comparative analysis. Fathers from dual-earner families are compared to fathers from single-earner families; father involvement is compared to mother involvement; and father involvement is compared across a variety of socioeconomic and ethnic groups and across countries. A core of recent research investigates and compares father involvement within families of color, in response to both the historical absence of this work and the negative stereotypes surrounding the involvement of minority fathers.

A third area of the literature takes a more in-depth look at fathering. This research examines the nature of the father-child relationship in general and pays particular attention to fathers who take most or all responsibility for childcare. This includes both single custodial fathers and fathers who are primary caregivers in intact families. Because researchers only recently have begun to look at these fathers, studies are usually exploratory and rely on small samples. Research addressing primary or shared caregiving fathers in intact families frequently examine androgynous parenting, in which either parent performs any parenting task. Most work on custodial fathers describes the problems faced by single-father families and assesses the adjustment of family members. The fathers in both areas of studies are typically White, middle-class, and well-educated. A growing body of research focuses on particular subgroups of fathers, such as gay fathers, fathers of color, adolescent fathers, and fathers of differently abled children.

The literature addressing how to increase paternal involvement with children includes research, usually clinical, that describes parent-education groups or support groups for fathers and practical strategies for fathers who want to take a greater role in childcare. Other literature seeks to increase paternal involvement through eliminating barriers to this involvement. Work barriers are discussed in literature that describes legislative and employer policies intended to help fathers balance their home and work responsibilities. This research discusses benefits such as paternal leave, on-site childcare, and job sharing. Other research examines ideological barriers to participation, such as the philosophy of masculinity that encourages men to suppress their nurturing qualities.

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FATHERS PRESENCE MATTERS -

The Father Presence Matters Library covers the following general areas: (1) father absence and child development, (2) family functioning in single parent families, and (3) the impact of father involvement on child development. A major area of this literature examines the impact of father absence on children's development and well-being. Many researchers focus on children's, especially boy's, self-esteem, sex-role identification, academic achievement, and school behavior. Others examine how father absence limits children's economic and social resources.

Another body of research explores the viability of the mother-headed family. Many researchers discuss the economic and social challenges facing single mothers and the influences of these challenges on maternal parenting behavior. The consensus of the literature is that the economic hardship of many single mothers seriously restricts the educational, health, and occupational opportunities for their children.

A somewhat smaller area of interest is the importance of father involvement for children's development and well-being. Researchers in this area argue that fathers' involvement extends beyond physical presence to include economic provision and a range of nurturing activities. Their research often looks at the continued involvement of divorced, separated, and never-married fathers. A subset of this work explores determinants of fathers' involvement. Some of these issues include his parental attitudes and beliefs, the parental attitudes and beliefs of his (ex)partner, his employment status, and the intensity of his work schedule. Other researchers explore the influence of a stepfather or other father figure in the development and well-being of children in father-absent home.

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JOBLESSNESS AND UNEMPLOYMENT

The Joblessness and Unemployment Library covers the following general areas: (1) work values and orientations; (2) joblessness and its impact on workers and their families; and (3) the nature of and labor participation in the informal (or underground) economy.

Research on work values and orientations examines several issues. Some scholars identify the meaning and significance of work in people's lives. A substantial amount of work in this area examines people's motivations to work and the factors that contribute to work satisfaction and dissatisfaction. To answer this research question, a small though increasing number of researchers explore the work-family nexus. Comparative data on this issue tend to be centered around occupational level and, to a lesser extent, age and gender variables. Racial differences are examined almost exclusively within studies of low-income and low occupational-status groups.

Researchers approach the issue of joblessness from several directions. A major area of interest is the impact of joblessness on individual well-being. The consensus in the literature is that joblessness negatively affects the mental and physical well-being of working-age people of all demographic groups. Furthermore, other research reports that employment positively influences individual well-being and family functioning. The positive effects of employment often are explored, for example, as part of research on the impact of women's employment on family functioning. Some studies identify sources of social support for unemployed workers and their families. Other studies isolate sources of psychological distress during unemployment.

Another area of interest to researchers is the implications of high rates of male joblessness and unemployment for fathers whose sense of role fulfillment is contingent upon their ability to provide for their families. Many researchers in this area report that the fulfillment of the provider role mediates further paternal involvement.

A significant body of literature addresses the overrepresentation of African American men among the under- and unemployed. Many researchers discuss male joblessness as a major contributor to the rise in female-headed households across race and particularly among African American families. Other researchers examine the contributing influence of joblessness to low marriage rates and father absence within poor African American communities.

The term informal economy refers to illegal or untaxed economic activity. Economists are particularly interested in the nature and scope of the informal economy within America's borders, its impact on the mainstream economy, the extent to which it can be contained, and its implications for national policy. Some research explores the causes or incentives for informal economic activity. For example, some consumers report buying or selling undocumented goods and services as a means of surviving economic hardship or heavy regulation and/or taxation. Social scientists have only recently begun studying this area. As a result, our understanding of informal labor participation is sketchy, at best. The few studies of informal labor participation reveal that the formal work environment provides the medium for much informal activity. Some scholars posit that poor and unemployed families enter the informal economy to support their households, although this issue has not been studied substantially.

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SYSTEMIC BARRIERS

The Systemic Barriers Library encompasses research on the difficulties that fathers face in the following areas: (1) paternity establishment; (2) the child support system; (3) social service agencies; and (4) the work environment. In addition, some authors address the lack of research on fathers and the presence of faulty assumptions about men and fathering within the literature.

The issues around paternity establishment have not been widely investigated. Establishing paternity is an issue for unmarried families, particularly when mothers seek formal child support or public assistance. The literature on this issue has emphasized the need to ensure paternity establishment to supplement, if not recapture, AFDC funds. Research reveals that poor mothers, however, are unlikely to adjudicate paternity. One source of mothers' hesitance, according to several reports, has been their understanding that the welfare system will seize child support in excess of $50 per month. Another significant barrier to paternity establishment is a lack of disseminated information about the process of establishing paternity. Many unmarried fathers simply do not know who to contact, what paternity establishment entails, and what its benefits are for children. Some clinicians discuss the social service agency as a good point of entry. Moreover, social agencies could provide needed information on the benefits to children of paternity establishment and father involvement. Other researchers and clinicians advocate appealing to unmarried parents when the father's emotional connection is likely to be at its highest: e.g., at the time of birth. A number of studies testify to the success of hospital-based paternity establishment programs.

Child support reform has been explored more extensively within the context of welfare reform. The primary systemic barrier to father involvement appears to be a sense of distrust toward fathers that pervades the child support system. Fathers are assumed to be uninterested in their children's lives. Father involvement is equated typically in this literature with financial support and examined almost exclusively in terms of fathers' willingness to pay. Willingness to pay has been associated with remarriage rates; the relationship with the former partner, pre- and postdivorce relationships with children (of divorce); father's income/educational level; race; and custody arrangement.

Family courts tend to hand down custody and child support decisions in a punitive manner. For instance, fathers are served a summons to appear in court to begin the process of paternity adjudication and child support. Many fathers, particularly young fathers of color, associate these procedures with criminal cases. Alongside the general distrust of fathers that pervades the child support system, many fathers (and mothers) distrust these institutions, approaching them only as a last resort. Although scant, some research reveals that unmarried fathers who fail to make child support payments are interested in their children's welfare and make in-kind contributions, e.g., diapers, clothes, food, and baby-sitting.

A significant body of clinical literature identifies a bias against fathers and in favor of mothers within social service agencies at all levels. Family agencies and programs either ignore the significance of father participation altogether or include fathers as auxiliary support for mother participants. However, many fathers, particularly teen and unmarried fathers, appear interested, but uninformed about parenting, child development, and their procreative and custody rights. African American men have been significantly shunned in family services. Many authors recommend a redefinition of the mission of social services that would include active outreach to young, unmarried fathers and would better inform practitioners of the cultural issues that govern father interaction with agencies and within families.

Some authors have addressed the need for more "father-friendly" employment benefits. Single fathers report difficulty balancing work and family responsibilities given the inflexibility of current work standards. The research on single fathers notes the primary importance of work schedule flexibility in balancing work and family.

Fathers, particularly African American fathers, are understudied within the empirical literature. With more indepth analysis of the issues surrounding father involvement, the social science field could better assist practitioners and policymakers who make the decisions that ultimately affect the lives of these men.

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CO-PARENTING

The Co-Parenting Library covers the following general areas: (1) antecedents and consequences of paternal participation, (2) co-parenting in intact families versus families of divorce, (3) fathers' contribution to co-parenting, and (4) impact of joint custody.

Research in the Co-Parenting Library provides an understanding of how married, divorced, and never-married parents cooperate to raise their children and identifies the elements that contribute to the success or failure of the co-parenting relationship. Co-parenting, or shared caregiving, assumes that fathers will take a substantial amount of responsibility for the direct care of their children, and, like the Fathers Care Library, the Co-Parenting Library identifies antecedents and (to some extent) consequences of paternal participation. More specifically, Co-Parenting addresses the experiences of working wives, the impact of work on both parents, and policies that are intended to help parents balance work and family demands. Because the provider role is so strongly associated with men's self-worth, the implications of this role for fathering is a recurrent theme throughout the seven volumes of the FatherLit Database. Whereas the Joblessness and Unemployment Library examines how joblessness can interfere with paternal participation, the Co-Parenting Library attempts to address how having a job influences a father's ability to parent.

The literature currently cited focuses on co-parenting in intact families and families of divorce. Studies examining the co-parenting relationship among unmarried couples are scarce. Many of the studies cited in the Co-Parenting Library suggest that co-parenting in intact families is almost exclusively the domain of dual-earner couples. Some studies focus on the relationship between work and family demands while other studies examine co-parenting independent of how it relates to work. In other words, while some research addresses how co-parental relationships have arisen in response to increased work demands (due to women's increased participation in the paid workforce), other research focuses on couples who have adopted flexible work schedules in an attempt to share equally in childcare. There is relatively little research on these nontraditional families, as they are commonly referred to in the literature.

In addition, research on co-parenting in intact families examines the kinds and amounts of household labor performed by each parent. Most studies have found that although co-parenting fathers contribute significantly to domestic work, they still view their role as "helpers" to their wives and do not contribute equally to household labor or childrearing.

Other research in this Library examines the impact of work on childcare. Employer benefits such as paternal leave and employer-sponsored daycare are discussed, including the relative importance of these benefits for parents. Other potential areas of support for co-parents are also examined, such as community supports and social networks.

A substantial body of research in the Co-Parenting Library focuses on the co-parenting relationship postdivorce. Many researchers argue that joint custody will alleviate a great deal of the stress that children experience after divorce and will improve outcomes for children, such as in school adjustment. Despite the enthusiasm for joint custody on the part of some researchers, others have warned that joint custody is not the ideal arrangement for all families of divorce. Even proponents of joint custody assert that joint custody is not appropriate for every family, particularly not for those who are unwilling to set aside their grievances with the former spouse in the interests of the child. Several researchers have identified the conditions that will lead to a successful co-parenting relationships.

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ROLE TRANSITIONS

The Role Transitions Library covers the following general areas: (1) adolescent transitions to parenthood; (2) adolescent transitions to adulthood; (3) sources of support for these transitions; and (4) transitions to parenthood in general.

A major area of this Library examines how adolescents cope with the simultaneous transitions to adulthood and parenthood. Particular attention is given to adolescent fathers, a group overlooked by much of the literature on early family formation. Most studies are exploratory, describing the teenage father and estimating the extent of his involvement with his children. These studies frequently focus on young fathers of color and seek to dispel myths regarding their attitudes and involvement. In addition, the literature identifies stressors that make the transition to parenthood especially challenging for adolescent males. Some researchers focus on the conflicts that arise from having to negotiate two successive developmental stages simultaneously and their implications for adolescent parenting behavior. Most of the work addressing developmental stages is based on Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development which argues that one stage or developmental conflict must be resolved successfully before the next stage can be negotiated. Literature focusing on the adolescent mother examines factors and beliefs that predispose an adolescent female to early motherhood. Other work evaluates the quality of adolescent mothering and the impact of this transition on the woman's development.

A somewhat smaller area of work in this Library explores the transition to adulthood and the developmental difficulties faced by adolescents. Most of this work focuses on the adolescent struggle for individuation or the recognition of oneself as separate from the family system. Several researchers argue that this developmental challenge plays a key role in adolescent sexual activity and childbearing. Some adolescent females assert their autonomy by moving out of the home and beginning a new family. Others examine the impact of pregnancy notification on adolescent males' subsequent sexual decisionmaking.

A number of studies in this Library describe interventions and programs intended to support teenagers in their adjustment to their new roles as parents and adults. These studies include descriptions of pregnancy-prevention programs and parent-education programs. A significant amount of this research addresses the omission of adolescent males from services supporting adolescent parents and the difficulty of involving teenage fathers in these programs. Researchers advocate involving teenage fathers beyond family planning. In addition, a number of studies examine kin and friendship networks and their role in supporting the adolescent female's transition to parenthood.

Finally, research that discusses the transition to parenthood in general is included in the Role Transitions Library. This literature sometimes addresses adolescent parenthood as a special case of the transition to parenthood. Research that does not examine directly adolescent parenthood can give insight into the stresses and supports experienced by all men and women who are becoming parents. Empirical studies frequently seek to identify characteristics of the expectant father that will make him more or less likely to be involved actively with his infant. Researchers also are interested in the effects of the quality of the marital relationship and fathers' presence during labor on father-infant attachment. Conversely, some work in this area examines the effect of the newborn on the marital relationship.

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INTERGENERATIONAL LEARNING

The Intergenerational Learning Library covers the following general areas: (1) the intergenerational transmission of values, beliefs, and behaviors; (2) parenting practices; and (3) the roles of grandparents and extended family members.

A significant body of literature addresses the influence of the family of origin on the values and beliefs of adolescent and adult children. Several studies attempt to determine the mechanism responsible for this transmission. In some cases, researchers are interested in the intergenerational transmission of deviant or maladaptive behaviors, such as substance abuse or abusive parenting. Their studies often provide suggestions for prevention strategies. In a similar vein, other researchers examine patterns of family structure, including divorce and early parenthood, across different generations. These analyses sometimes also consider intergenerational patterns of poverty and welfare recipience.

Another significant area of interest is the influence of family of origin on mate selection and interpersonal relationships. This work reflects the growing recognition that the extended family plays a key role in childrearing, particularly in families of color, and increasingly investigates the causes, effects, and implications of involvement from wider kin networks. Most of this research focuses on the grandmother's role in raising grandchildren and has examined the consequences of her involvement as well as the meaning of this involvement for her and her family. Other studies are exploratory, describing the intergenerational system and extended kinship network. Included in this database is a core of work on mothers and the intergenerational connection. Little of the existing research focuses on men as fathers and grandfathers. Research on mothers has been included as a separate section because of the comparisons and insights the data may provide.

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