Father and FamilyLINK, Recent Research: February 2001

Research Reports and News Posted February 2001:

Fathers--Research | Children & Families | Welfare Reform | NCOFF Abstracts

CASA National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse VI: Teens, National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, February 21, 2001.

Press Release Excerpt:

Only one in four teens in America (27 percent, about 6.5 million) lives with "hands-on" parents--parents who have established a household culture of rules and expectations for their teen's behavior and monitor what their teens do: such as the TV shows they watch, the CD's they buy, what they access on the Internet, and where they are evenings and weekends. These teens are at one quarter the risk of smoking, drinking and using drugs as teens with "hands-off" parents, according to a new survey of 1,000 American teens ages 12-17 released today by The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (CASA*).

The 2000 CASA National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse VI: Teens for the first time correlated each teen's risk of substance abuse with a series of 12 possible actions the teen attributed to his or her parents. "Hands-on" parents consistently take at least 10 of these actions. "Hands-off" parents take five or less. Nearly one in five teens (18 percent, about 4.3 million teens) lives with "hands-off" parents and is at four times the risk of substance abuse as teens with "hands-on" parents.

The loud and clear message of the survey is this: moms and dads should be parents to their children, not pals," said CASA President and former U.S. Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare Joseph A. Califano, Jr. "Mothers and fathers who are parents rather than pals can greatly reduce the risk of their children smoking, drinking and using drugs. They can counter negative media influences and the prevalence of marijuana and other drugs in a teen's world. Whatever the family structure, whether the teen lives with both parents, a single mom or a single dad, their risk of smoking, drinking or using illegal drugs in "hands-on" households is dramatically lower than that of the average teen."

The 12 actions against which parental conduct is measured are: monitor what their teens watch on TV; monitor what they do on the Internet; put restrictions on the CD's they buy; know where their teens are after school and on weekends; expect to be and are told the truth by their teens about where they really are going in evenings or on weekends; are "very aware" of their teen's academic performance; impose a curfew; make clear they would be "extremely upset" if their teen used pot; eat dinner with their teens most every night; turn off the TV during dinner; assign their teen regular chores; and have an adult present when the teen returns from school.

For the complete Press Release, visit the CASA web site. For a copy of this report contact Lynn Galligan at 212-841-5227.

The Right Start: Conditions of Babies and Their Families Across the Nation and in America's Largest Cities, Annie E. Casey Foundation and Child Trends, February 20, 2001.

In this new two-volume Special Report, KIDS COUNT and Child Trends provide a powerful tool to those who work to give every newborn in America he right start In The Right Start: State Trends we present state-level data for every year from 1990 to 1998 on eight specific measures of a healthy and promising start to life. This includes annual data, as well as a one-page narrative description of how each state fared during the 1990-1998 period. In the companion volume, The Right Start: City Trends the same indicators are measured for the nation's 50 largest cities. This level of detail enables readers to pinpoint the most urgent issues affecting birth outcomes in their cities and to fashion targeted, tailored responses. The Right Start City Trends also identifies cities that have seen notable improvements in specific measures and those that are performing much better than average.

Press Release Excerpt:

America's large cities showed improvements on some measures of a healthy and promising start to life during the prosperous 1990s, according to two reports released today. But the reports indicate that babies born in the nation's big cities in the 1990s continued to start life at a greater disadvantage than those born elsewhere in the U.S.

The reports, one comparing the 50 largest cities and the other showing state-by-state data, were released today by Child Trends and KIDS COUNT, an initiative of the Annie E. Casey Foundation. The documents, The Right Start City Trends: Conditions of Babies and Their Families in America's Largest Cities (1990-1998) and The Right Start State Trends: The Condition of Babies and Their Families Across the Nation (1990-1998), show trends and identify cities and states with the best and worst performance on each measure of a healthy and promising start to life. The report uses data provided by the National Center for Health Statistics.

For online access to the data and findings from this report, visit the Annie E. Casey Foundation web site or the Child Trends web site.

Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children & Youth 2000, U.S Department of Health and Human Services, January 2001.

Introduction Excerpt:

This is the fifth edition of an annual report from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) on trends in the well-being of our nation's children and youth. The report presents the most recent and reliable estimates on more than 80 indicators of well-being. It is intended to provide the policy community, the media, and all interested citizens with an accessible overview of data describing the condition of children in the United States.

book cover The indicators have been organized into five broad areas:

Population, family, and neighborhood;
Economic security;
Health conditions and health care;
Social development, behavioral health, and teen fertility; and
Education and achievement.

For each indicator, the report provides graphics to highlight key trends and important population subgroup differences and tables that provide more detailed information for the interested user. These are accompanied by text that briefly describes the importance of each indicator and highlights the most salient features of the data.

To obtain a copy of this publication, contact the U.S. Government Printing Office at bookstore.gpo.gov, or call (202)-512-1800.

TUNE IN: New Mexico Attitudes on Sex Education, New Mexico Teen Pregnancy Coalition, October, 2000.

Excerpts:

In the NMTPC 2000-2003 Plan of Work, our 17-member Board of Directors recommended that we provide technical assistance and support to communities in the area of teen pregnancy prevention and parenting. To proceed in a planned and comprehensive manner, the decision was made to conduct a survey of adult attitudes toward sexuality education as a teen pregnancy prevention initiative.

The results of this survey will allow New Mexico to move forward with accurate, objective, and professional documentation about what New Mexico families want and need regarding sexuality education. We believe that this information will support a strong, positive and credible agenda to reduce teen pregnancy in New Mexico.

Survey data includes the following results:

New Mexicans identified teen pregnancy as one of the biggest problems facing our youth, just behind drugs, poor quality of education, and lack of parental involvement. It is notable that experts in the field of teen pregnancy have identified substance abuse and lack of connection to family and school as closely related to high teen pregnancy rates.
80% of New Mexican adults agree that "schools need to supplement what parents teach at home so kids have full information about contraception, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV and AIDS."
90% support sex education for high school students, and 78% support sex education at the middle school level.
When respondents were asked what grade they feel it is appropriate to teach specific topics in schools, 87-88% indicated the desire to have puberty, abstinence, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV/AIDS taught in the 7th/8th grade...

For the complete report in PDF format, visit the NMTP web site.

Who's Caring for Our Youngest Children? Child Care Patterns of Infants and Toddlers, Jennifer Ehrle and Gina Adams, The Urban Institute; Kathryn Tout, Child Trends; Urban Institute, January 2001.

Executive Summary--Excerpt:

Child care of children younger than age 3 has become an issue of increasing public focus. This is due, at least in part, to the recognition that millions of American parents are working during their children's early years. The interest also stems from the growing body of research showing how important the earliest years are in setting a strong foundation for children's future learning and success (Shore 1997). This research has helped spur various policy initiatives that focus on child care for this age group-including initiatives to improve the quality of child care and to provide comprehensive early childhood services, for example, the Early Head Start program.

Despite this interest, not much information has been widely available to provide a national overview of the care and education arrangements of children younger than age 3 with working mothers. This study uses the National Survey of America's Families (NSAF) to present national findings on the types of care, hours in care, and the numbers of child care arrangements used for children under age 3 of working mothers. This paper also looks at how these aspects of care differ depending on characteristics of the children and families. Because of the frequent use of relative care settings for this age group, we also offer an in-depth view of some key characteristics of these arrangements.

Data and Methods

This paper uses 1997 NSAF data to look at the child care patterns of children under age 3 of working mothers in the United States. We examine three aspects of care - types of care, hours in care, and the number of nonparental arrangements...

For a copy of the complete report, visit the Urban Institute web site.

Child Care Expenses of America's Families, Linda Giannarelli and James Barsimantov, Urban Institute, December 2000.

Introduction--Excerpt:

In working families with children, child care expenses can consume a large portion of the family budget. Not all families pay for care-either because they do not use child care or because they receive it at no charge. But in families that do pay for care-especially low-income families-the expenses can be significant. Child care expenses may erode the financial benefits of employment, affecting whether a family can "get by" on relatively low earnings without public assistance.

The affordability of child care has become an issue for greater numbers of low-income families as millions have left the welfare rolls for employment since the mid-1990s. Child care subsidies are not an entitlement, and not all low-income families receive help. For instance, the primary source of federal funding for subsidized child care-the Child Care and Development Fund-serves only 10 percent to 15 percent of the children who are eligible for those subsidies (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 1999). Most families that have left the welfare system and are working are not receiving child care subsidies (Schumacher and Greenberg 1999).

High child care expenses may influence the lives of families and children at all income levels, in both financial and non-financial ways. A parent who would otherwise choose to have a job may choose not to work or to work fewer hours because of the costs of child care. Parents in a two-parent family may choose to work different shifts to avoid expenses, affecting the amount of time a family is able to spend together. Some of the parents who use paid care may place their children in care they consider unsatisfactory because other arrangements are unaffordable, with potential effects on a variety of child outcomes. Lower-quality child care-as measured by child-staff ratios, group size, and teacher training and education-has been found to be related to a higher incidence of problem behaviors, lower cognition, and lower school readiness (NICHD [National Institute of Child Health and Human Development] Early Childcare Research Network 1999).

This paper uses a recent survey-the 1997 National Survey of America's Families, or NSAF-to look at the child care expenses of working families with children under age 13. We examine the likelihood that different kinds of families pay for child care and how much money different kinds of families pay, both in dollar terms and as a percentage of their earnings. We focus on child care expenses in nonsummer months, providing a snapshot of monthly expenses in the spring or fall of 1997...

For a copy of the complete report, visit the Urban Institute web site.

Welfare Reform

The Status of TANF Leavers In The District of Columbia: Final Report, Gregory Acs and Pamela Loprest, Urban Institute, January 3, 2001

Executive Summary Excerpt:
In 1996, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) eliminated the federal entitlement program that provided cash aid to low-income families with dependent children (AFDC) and replaced it with the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant. While states and jurisdictions like the District of Columbia (DC) must use TANF money to aid low-income families, TANF emphasizes moving families from cash assistance to work.
Because the goal of welfare reform is not simply to reduce the number of families on public assistance but to help families become self-sufficient, the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation in the US Department of Health and Human Services (ASPE) funded the District of Columbia and 13 other jurisdictions (states/counties) to study families leaving the welfare rolls and assess how they are faring in terms of their employment, earnings, use of public assistance programs, family circumstances, and overall well-being.
This study reports on the status of former welfare recipients in the District of Columbia, focusing on two groups of families that left the TANF program: those that left in the last quarter of 1997 and those that left in the last quarter of 1998. The study uses administrative data from the DC Department of Human Services for the 1997 and 1998 groups as well as interviews with a sample of those that left in 1998, conducted approximately one year after they left.
- Between June 1997 and December 1999, DC's cash assistance caseload fell by 23.8 percent, to 18,028 families. This decline is smaller than the 36.9 percent drop in caseloads nationwide; however, caseload declines in urban areas, in general, have lagged behind the national average. In addition, it is
- important to note that DC did not adopt some of the policies used in other states to reduce its caseload, such as eliminating all cash benefits to families in which the head fails to comply with program requirements.
- Families leaving TANF in DC are typical of DC's entire caseload in most respects; however, leavers are slightly less likely to have larger families and to have children under age 6 than the typical TANF recipient.
- Our survey of families that left TANF during the last quarter of 1998 shows that 60.3 percent were working at the time of the interview; another 19.5 percent had worked at some point after leaving TANF. This employment rate is similar to those found in studies of TANF leavers in other jurisdictions as well as in national surveys.
- The typical (median) TANF leaver with a job works 40 hours a week and earns over $8 an hour. Less than half of working leavers report receiving employee benefits like paid sick days or pension plans, but almost two-thirds have paid vacations.
- While only 31.7 percent of employed leavers have health insurance through their jobs, 40.7 percent are covered by Medicaid. Overall, 21.6 percent of employed adult leavers (the head of the TANF unit) and 19.3 percent of their children are uninsured...
For a copy of the complete report, visit the Urban Institute web site.
New Abstracts from NCOFF
Fox, G. L., Sayers, J., & Bruce. C. (forthcoming). Beyond bravado: Redemption and rehabilitation in the fathering accounts of men who batter. Marriage and Family Review .
This study presents the experiences and reflections concerning the father role among men participating in a court-mandated counseling group due to their history of battering and violence toward their spouse. The author presents field notes and memos from on-site observations of a 6-month counseling program for male batterers. The author then interviewed 8 of the men from the program. Most of the men were white and possessed moderate education and occupational status. The author found that the men were involved in a dynamic process of reshaping themselves, marked by several themes and stages. The first of these stages was the Catastrophic Moment, when the batterer confronted himself and realized he could not continue as before. This realization led to Remorse, which involved feeling sorrow for past actions. Responsibility involved owning up to abusive behavior and facing some of the reasons for the abuse. This led to Reparation, which refers to taking steps to repair relationships damaged by the abuse, particularly with children, and trying to be a better father than their own fathers had been. (Many of the batterers had been abused as children by their own fathers.) Redemption and Reconstruction involved self-reclamation and restoring the moral worthiness of the self, and trying to be a better person overall. The final step the author notes in the process was Moving Beyond Bravado, when the father moved past a self image as a beleaguered man to a self image of a good father worthy of social regard. Overall, the findings showed that it is possible for batterers to change their behavior in a meaningful way, and part of that meaningful change came from commitment to the father role. The author notes that the presentation of these findings is not intended to absolve batterers of their actions toward their spouses and children. However, it may be valuable in helping serve justice through counseling and intervention in addition to incarceration.
Barnes, G. M., Reifman, A. S., Farrell, M. P., & Dintcheff, B. A. (2000). The effects of parenting on the development of adolescent alcohol misuse: A six-wave latent growth model. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 175-186.
This study explores the effects of several parenting factors on the development of alcohol misuse among adolescents. The authors used a longitudinal study, which consisted of six waves of interviews during the period from 1989 to 1996. The sample includes 506 adolescents who were interviewed at all six waves of data collection and is composed of 149 African Americans and 357 Caucasians and other racial groups. The results show that parental alcohol abuse did not directly affect adolescents' alcohol misuse, but affected family socialization, which in turn affected adolescent alcohol misuse. Family support was negatively affected by parental alcohol abuse, as was monitoring through parental support and monitoring alone. Black adolescents were less likely to initiate alcohol misuse than do white adolescents, and black adolescents showed a smaller increase in alcohol misuse over the course of adolescence than do white adolescents. Younger adolescents had sharper increases of alcohol misuse than older adolescents do, perhaps because they started out with lowed levels. Male adolescents had sharper increases in alcohol misuse through direct effect than females, suggesting that males are more likely to engage in heavy and problem drinking while they are adolescents. Indirectly, male adolescents had sharper increases in alcohol misuse, through lowered parental monitoring, which seemed to be more prevalent for boys than for girls. These results reaffirm the hypothesis that the family plays a significant part in the socialization of children, especially factors such as nurturing and monitoring. Children reared in supportive, nurturing environments are more likely to be more receptive to parental monitoring during adolescence. The authors suggest early prevention of adolescent alcohol misuse through a combination of support and monitoring.
Barth, R. P., Miller, J. M. (2000). Building effective post-adoption services: What is the empirical foundation? Family Relations, 49(4), 447-455
This article discusses the ways in which adoption outcomes can be improved by post-adoption services that are more suited to the needs and preferences identified by families. Despite the fact that most adoptions are successful, many adopted children and their families face a variety of problems associated with their adoptive status. The quality and nature of post-adoption services depends on whether adopted children have unusual needs which can be met through existing services. Numerous studies have addressed this issue, some finding that adopted children have higher incidences of problems such as Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder, (ADHD), conduct disorders, and antisocial behavior. However, the demographics of adoptive families many help explain these findings: Adoptive families tend to be wealthier, more educated, and more involved in human services and as a result may be more prone to noticing and reporting these problems in their children. Many researchers seem to agree, however, that the older the adopted child, the greater the chances of disruption of the adoption. Chances of disruption are also increased when the adoptive family lacks prior experience with adoption, and among younger mothers and mothers with higher education who tend to adopt children who are more troubled. Pre-adoption services should encourage parents to have reasonable expectations about adoption and be clear with parents about the difficulties which often occur. Post-adoption services desired by parents can be categorized in three ways: 1) Educational and informational services, which emphasize full disclosure of information to adoptive parents concerning the child's history and the problems which could arise; 2) Clinical services, which offer counseling for the child and the parents, and 3) Material services, which include medical care, special education options, and adoption subsidies. The authors also maintain that post-adoption services should be based less on attachment theory than on family systems models, which have the flexibility to change over time as the family relationships develop in the larger social context. Public policy should focus more on this dynamic approach in developing interventions, programs, and services for adoptive families and their children.
Bittman, M., & Goodin, R. E. (2000). An equivalence scale for time. Social Indicators Research, 52(3), 291-311.
This paper presents an 'equivalence scale for time', a model which provides information about families' total working time in paid and unpaid labor, as determined by household structure. The equivalence scale for time is similar to the equivalence scale for income, which begins with actual cash income of a household, and adjusts it according to family structure. Equivalence scales for time operate by taking the time spent in paid labor and adjusting that according to family structure. Equivalence scales are often used to determine how certain households compare with others in terms of inequality in living standards or relative poverty, and both can be measured in terms of money or time. Equivalence scales also correct for differences in family member's access and control over time and income. However, the income models rely on approximations of differences in family members' drawing rights to their standard of living, and therefore focus on the total time households spend working in both paid and unpaid labor. Equivalence scales for time are more effective than the income models for estimating working time at the individual level. The authors demonstrate the use of the equivalence scale for time by analyzing data from 28 surveys in 13 western countries from 1961 to 1992. The surveys collected work time information from individuals either through having them keep diaries of their activities throughout the day, or having them estimate how much time they spent in certain activities. The results showed that the presence of children in the household increased women's unpaid work time, and that generally men's work time is paid, while women spend more time overall in unpaid work. Women's weekly work hours decreased over the period, while men's work hours increased gradually. These general results seemed applicable to all the countries under study. Equivalence scales for time can be used to determine the economic value of a household, as well as to study ?time poverty' and ?time inequality', which relate to the important resource of free time.
Buchanan, A., Brinke, J. T., & Flouri, E. (2000). Parental background, social disadvantage, public "care," and psychological problems in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1415-1423.
This study investigated whether psychological problems in adolescence and adulthood can be traced to the structure of parental background (birth, restructured, widowed, single) or context (severe social disadvantage or care) in childhood. The authors used a sample of 8,441 persons from the National Child Development Study (NCDS) for whom there was mental health information at 16 and 33 years. Data for persons in the sample came from parents, teachers, school health officials, and the sample members themselves, and the sample is considered to be representative of the population of England, Scotland, and Wales. The findings showed that the structure of the family in which a child was brought up has much less effect than the context in predicting maladjustment in adolescence. Childhood experience of care and severe disadvantage was negatively associated with the child's intellectual ability, and predicted adolescent maladjustment. At the same time, childhood experience of single parenthood, with the exception of death of a parent, and the experience of care, significantly predicted adult psychological distress in men but not in women. Adult psychological distress was associated with psychosocial problems in adolescence as well as unemployment in adulthood. For women, depression in adult life was associated with low socioeconomic status, poor health habits, and the absence of a partner or any qualifications. For both men and women, high nonverbal skills in childhood appeared to mediate the tendency to distress in adulthood. Overall, high intellectual abilities in childhood seemed to protect against maladjustment adolescence and adulthood. For women, psychosocial problems in adolescence, low social class, smoking and drinking habits, and low nonverbal skills in childhood predicted the tendency to distress at 33. These predictors did not have the same effect on men's adult distress; men's distress at 33 was predicted by childhood experience of care, single parenthood, low reasoning skills in childhood, maladjustment in adolescence, and adult unemployment. Future research should focus on the effects of social disadvantage as a predictor for adult mental health.
Buchanan. C. M. (2000). The impact of divorce on adjustment during adolescence. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp. 179-215). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
This book chapter reviews research concerning the impact of divorce on adolescent adjustment. Findings regarding children's functioning after divorce have been fairly inconsistent. There is evidence that divorce negatively affects adolescents' functioning, but it is unclear to what degree, the time of onset, and for how long the effects occur. Three potential moderators of divorce are identified as structural and demographic factors, characteristics of the child, and characteristics of the family. Important structural and demographic factors include economic well being, which has been shown to greatly affect children's adjustment. Life stresses, custody arrangements, and visitation with the noncustodial parent are all inconclusive but important factors for children's development. Remarriage and cohabitation are also important factors. Child factors include personality and psychological history, which can greatly affect adjustment, as can the child's age at the time of divorce, though there is no age when children can be considered immune to the effects of divorce. Sex differences do not seem to be significant, while peer networks can be helpful for children of divorce. Family factors, such as the quality of parent-child relationships, can be significant predictors of children's adjustment after divorce. Interparental conflict and communication is also shown in several studies to play an important part in children's adjustment after divorce, and is even seen by some researchers as a better predictor than divorce itself. Parenting practices, such as involvement and communication, as well as parents' expectations for themselves and their children appear to be important moderators of children's adjustment to divorce. Future research should further investigate the extent to which effects of divorce can be moderated by policy efforts that both strengthen marriage and support divorced parents.
Buehler, C., & Pasley, K. (2000). Family boundary ambiguity, marital status, and child adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20(3), 281-308.
This study examines the relationship between children's perceptions of family boundary ambiguity and their personal adjustment. The authors define boundary ambiguity as a situation in which it is not clear to other family members whether a particular member is part of the family because that member may be physically present but psychologically absent, or vice versa. If such a loss is not clearly explained, family structure and organization is disrupted, and the perceptions of the loss inform the adjustment and functioning of the other members. The authors used a sample of 349 fourth, fifth, and sixth graders from several Tennessee elementary schools, 93% percent of whom were European American. Children in the sample completed questionnaires regarding their perceptions of their parents, and teachers completed a checklist pertaining to the children's adjustment. The results showed that father psychological presence was not related to children's behavior problems or overall school adjustment. In fact, more ambiguous boundaries, specifically, father physical presence and lower psychological presence, were associated with better grades. Children who reported average levels of fathers' psychological presence had the best grades, suggesting that only children with extremely low father psychological presence are at risk for adjustment problems. For children who did not live with their fathers, but saw them often and thought about them often, behavior problems were more prevalent. Children who saw their fathers less often but thought about them often had fewer behavior problems. Father psychological presence was not related to children's internalizing problems, externalizing problems, or school adjustment when children lived with their fathers. For children who did not live with their fathers, the results also showed no connection between father's psychological presence and children's adjustment. In general, children living in nondivorced families had better adjustment, while children living with mother-only had the lowest adjustment scores. Children living with stepfathers scored somewhere in the middle. Overall, the idea that family boundary ambiguity influenced children's adjustment was not supported, while family composition was more of a determinant of children's adjustment, which should be noted in future research efforts.
Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 467-488.
This article examines the early emergence and developmental implications of externalizing behaviors in toddlers and preschoolers using longitudinal research of children at risk for psychopathology. Externalizing symptoms include aggression toward peers, marked noncompliance, high activity levels, and poor regulation of impulses. While these behaviors are considered normal toddler behavior in most cases, they can also signal later developmental and behavior problems. Research in the past several decades has focused on attachment theory and other models which link parent-child relationships with child development, resulting in widespread diagnoses of Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorders (CD). There have been mixed findings regarding the pathways of development from early externalizing behaviors to more serious problems later in childhood, and the role of family context and parental behavior in these pathways. Researchers generally find that the connection between genetic predisposition and childrearing and social experiences is characterized by a complex and varying set of factors. Several studies have shown that the presence of multiple risk factors is the strongest predictor that early externalizing behaviors will develop into more persistent problems. Limited parental warmth and involvement, ineffective discipline strategies, and low family income are considered risk factors. Some researchers have focused on constellations of families with similar characteristics, rather than risk factors, to study externalizing problems in childhood. The author also notes the importance of mediating factors such as social networks or better parent functioning. To better understand the factors affecting the development of conduct problems in early childhood, the author suggests the need for prospective, longitudinal studies that include multiple factors and use a developmental approach. Biological processes also can be helpful in understanding factors such as emotion regulation and impulse control. Research should take into account neighborhood influences and issues of culture and ethnicity in order to inform effective social policy pertaining to high-risk children living in high-risk environments.
Chao, R. K. (2000). Cultural explanations for the role of parenting in the school success of Asian-American children. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp. 333-364). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This book chapter discusses how cultural expectations and practices affect Asian American parenting as related to children's academic success. Many studies have shown that Asian American children and adolescents, specifically Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, have better academic achievement than other ethnic groups in the United States. Several explanations have been offered by researchers, including reports that Asian American children spend more time studying, that their parents place a high value on education and are more involved with their children's schooling, and that their particular minority status allows them to use education as a way to achieve success. There are also cultural factors on which the author focuses more closely. The developmental niche theory (1986) focuses on parental ethnotheories, and states that parents choose from available possibilities to create the best settings for their children's development. In this way, parental decision combines with cultural factors in forming an educational niche for children. In China and other areas, notions about the importance of early educational intervention are important for effective parenting and developing the child's full potential. Parents are also judged by how well their children do in school, and many parents create home environments that support education and are involved with tutoring, assigning extra work, and buying materials for education. Overall, Asian American parents carry many of these beliefs about education, and adopt a managerial role in their children's education. Another cultural aspect of Asian American parents' approach to parenting is that hierarchical relationships between students and teachers have a quality of warmth, which contrasts with Western authoritarianism in such relationships. Asian American children are taught to respect authority, and teachers, in turn, are firm, clear, yet supportive and organizational in their teaching. A study of 123 immigrant Chinese and 64 European American parents and children showed that filial piety, socialization, parental training, and parental involvement in education were more important to Asian American parents than European American parents. Future research should continue to take into account the influence of culture when studying parenting.
Chay, K. Y., & Lee, D. S. (2000). Changes in relative wages in the 1980s: Returns to observed and unobserved skills and black-white wage differentials. Journal of Econometrics, 99(1), 1-38.
This paper examines how a rise in unmeasured productivity is related to a dramatic increase in the wage gap between college and high school educated people as well as between black and white workers in the 1980s. The rise in the unobserved skill premium is measured through the use of an error-components panel data model, and wage differentials between and within cohorts are examined using earnings data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). The authors found that increases in education over time accounted for the wage gap for the older age cohort of the CPS sample. For the younger cohort, however, the rise in the return to ability accounted for only 30-40% of the college-high school wage gap over the 1980s. During this time, there was a 30% rise in the return to unmeasured productivity, and the effects of labor market discrimination by race are not entirely clear. When attributing the black-white wage gap to discrimination, discrimination against black workers increased over the period. When attributing the gap to black-white productivity differences, discrimination appears to decrease during the period. Either way, black men in the youngest age cohort experienced a significant decline in wages relative to white workers from 1979 to 1991 that cannot be explained by the growth in the ability premium. Even if the model assumes that there was no racial discrimination in 1979, black workers still experienced wage discrimination. The greatest differences in wages were found between well-educated young black men as compared to their white counterparts. Even after accounting for the rising skills premium, better-educated black workers experienced enormous losses in relative wages in the 1980s. The authors conclude that the wage gap between young black and white workers during the 1980s is not explained by the rise in the skills premium. Future research should focus on changes in estimates of changes in worker quality over time, as well as the effects of affirmative action.
Cooper, H., & Lindsay, J. J. (2000). Homework in the home: How student, family, and parenting-style differences relate to the homework process. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(4), 464-487.
This study examined parents' involvement in their children's homework. A sample of 709 parents and students completed questionnaires, and teachers provided class grades and standardized test scores. Respondents came from an urban, suburban, or rural school district. The results showed three forms of parental involvement with homework: support (or lack of support) for autonomy, direct involvement, and elimination of distractions. Negative forms of parent involvement occurred in most families at least some of the time, and student and family differences predicted different parenting styles in homework. At least half of parents reported that they helped their children with homework even when it was not required. About two thirds of parents said that they sometimes provided help that interfered with student development and made homework harder at least some of the time. When children were younger, it was harder to distinguish between interference and autonomy support, but as children grew older, interference became an independent dimension. Older children also received more autonomy support, less direct involvement, and less elimination of distractions, as reported by parents. Parents in poorer families were less likely to support autonomy and more likely to interfere with their children's homework. When children were home alone after school, parents reported less elimination of distractions, and less elimination of distractions was reported when more children lived in the home. Parents of more children were also less likely to be involved when the children were younger and required the most involvement, possibly because of parents' limited resources in providing help for many children. Parents reported more direct involvement with boys' homework in elementary school, while parents of high school girls reported more direct involvement. The results also showed that parental support for autonomy predicted better student achievement as measured by grades or standardized test scores. On the other hand, direct parental involvement predicted more negative school achievement. Future research should examine further parents' involvement with homework using observational methods.
Cunningham, C. E., Boyle, M., Offord, D., Racine, Y., Hundert, J., Secord, M., & McDonald, J. (2000). Tri-ministry study: Correlates of school-based parenting course utilization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 928-933.
This study examines the utilization of universally available school-based parent training in a sample of Ontario families, focusing on enrollment factors and issues. The study was completed as a component of the Tri-Ministry project, which was designed to evaluate three universal school-based programs, and was based on a subsample of 407 children who participated in a follow-up interview after the initial screening. The school-based program included parenting skills for parents of children with problem behavior. Home assessments, teacher ratings, and parent survey results indicated that between 28% to 46% of parents with children with high externalizing problems enrolled in the program. Higher parent-reported externalizing problems were related to increased enrollment, and parents of children whose problems were more severe attended more sessions. Life stress, self-reported parental depressive symptoms, and family dysfunction were not associated with enrollment. Socioeconomic factors were also not linked to involvement in this program, contrary to findings of previous studies. Social factors associated with increased childhood risk seemed to predict lower enrollment despite school-based locations, evening courses, and child-care availability. Social factors included single parent status and limited parental education. Families of children who were less involved in extracurricular activities were also less likely to enroll in the program, as were immigrants, possibly because of language and cultural barriers. Factors such as lack of parenting experience may have been better predictors of parental enrollment than children's externalizing scores. First-time parents were more likely to enroll than were other parents. In the future, parent-training programs should utilize new models that are convenient, flexible, and sensitive to different cultural and demographic groups.
Davis, B., Sheeber, L., Hops, H., & Tildesley, E. (2000). Adolescent responses to depressive parental behaviors in problem-solving interactions: Implications for depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 451-465.
This study explores how child responses to interparental depressive behavior relate to subsequent child depression symptoms. The sample included 156 families who were part of a larger study of adolescent depression in western Oregon. Parents and adolescents in the study completed questionnaires and participated in videotaped problem-solving interactions. Overall, the results indicated that parental depressive behavior has an impact on child behavior and children's subsequent depression. Children appear to respond to both depressive and aggressive interparental behaviors. Female adolescents who showed the greatest increase in depression over time were those who engaged in facilitative behavior, such as "peacekeeping," to the mothers in reaction to the father directing depressive behavior toward the mother. This type of caretaking role calls upon children to tackle problems that are out of their control and is associated with self-blame, learned helplessness, and hopelessness which in turn lead to depressive symptomology. The results also showed that when female adolescents suppress anger toward mothers when mothers direct depressive behavior toward fathers, there is an increased risk of depressive symptoms for the adolescent. The findings showed opposite results for male adolescents. When the mother directed depressive behavior toward the father, the son was more likely to display aggressive behavior. Male adolescents are also more likely to react aggressively toward maternal aggressive behavior, indicating that male adolescents may have limited response skills for responding to interparental conflict. Adolescent depression was also significantly related to the adolescent's response toward the father's directing depressive behavior toward the mother, and this finding was true across gender. Future research should examine the degree to which the course of the interparental disagreement affects child outcomes as well as the family alliances that are formed as a result.
Dowdney, L. (2000). Annotation: Childhood bereavement following parental death. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 41(7), 819-830.
This article examines psychological outcomes in children who have experienced the death of a parent. There are many reactions to parental death among children, varying in intensity and duration. Many children suffer from depression, losing interest in activities for a year or so, but this effect usually passes over time. Severe depression is also occasionally reported, however. Children also experience anxiety and somatizing disorders, but this is relatively rare, as is the occurrence of comorbid disorders. Commonly, children are prone to nonspecific disturbances such as crying, sadness, anger, guilt, and despair. Social and educational adjustment also tends to be affected when a child loses a parent: some children do better at school as tribute to the dead parent, while many children have difficulty concentrating. Children's grief reactions tend to lessen with the passage of time, and when emotional and behavioral disturbance occurs, it can last for up to 12 months after the death. Several factors can be considered as moderating effects on children's outcomes after parental death, such as how the death occurred (children are more negatively affected by a parent's murder or suicide), and whether the death was expected or unexpected. The age and sex of the child also can be considered as moderators, as boys are more negatively affected than girls are. Mediating variables include factors such as the surviving parent's subsequent mental health difficulties, and the family's mourning process. The moderating and mediating variables account for the variety in child outcomes concerning the amount and duration of disturbance.
Eamon, M. K. (2000). Structural model of the effects of poverty on externalizing and internalizing behaviors of four- to five-year-old children. Social Work Research, 24(3), 143-154.
This study examines how parenting practices and poverty affect externalizing and internalizing behaviors of children four to five years old. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) provided the mother-child data, for a sample of 1,505 four and five-year-old children, including 384 African American, 287 Hispanic, and 834 white children. The authors interviewed participants, determining persistent, transitional, and recent poverty as well as family characteristics. The results showed that mothers who were recently poor were less likely to answer their children verbally, convey positive feelings and show affection than recently nonpoor mothers were. Children in recently poor families were also less likely to be provided with stimulating activities and this finding, coupled with mothers' emotional unresponsiveness, mediated the relationship between recent poverty and children's internalizing behaviors. Having fewer stimulating activities also increases children's tendencies of bullying, arguing, stubbornness, disobedience, and impulsiveness. The findings showed a connection between parenting practices and poverty: parental involvement and emotional responsiveness were vulnerable to income loss or recent poverty. There was no link between physical discipline and poverty, but physical discipline increased children's likelihood of externalizing and internalizing behaviors. As the number of years children spent in poverty increased, the likelihood of sadness, anxiety, and dependency increased as well. Conditions of poverty often cause families to experience additional stress and social isolation, which may cause parents to restrict their children's activities. Children who grow up in unclean, unsafe, cluttered, dark, or monotonous home environments are more likely to suffer internalizing behaviors related to persistent poverty. These results show that poverty has very significant negative effects on children's well being. The authors suggest that income transfer programs that are more generous and less stigmatizing may help decrease children's behavior problems.
Fagan, J. (2000). African American and Puerto Rican American parenting styles, paternal involvement, and Head Start children's social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46(4), 592-612.
This study examines the parenting styles and paternal involvement of low-income African American and Puerto Rican American parents and how child behavior is related to parenting styles and involvement. The sample included 52 African American and 21 Puerto Rican American parents with children in Head Start. The authors collected data through teacher ratings of child social competence, parent interviews, and survey instruments administered to parents. The findings showed that ethnicity was related to parenting style. Puerto Rican American parents were more nurturing, responsive, and consistent with their children than African American parents. A possible reason for this finding is that African American parents may place greater importance on obedience and self-control in raising their children to deal with racism and discrimination. There were no significant differences on these measures between mothers and fathers for either African Americans or Puerto Rican Americans. Puerto Rican American and African American parents scored similarly on level of paternal child-care involvement. The results also showed that ethnicity moderated the relationship between parenting style and child social competence: for Puerto Rican Americans, mothers' reports of responsiveness and consistency were significantly associated with child social competence, and fathers' responsiveness and consistence predicted child social behavior. For African Americans, the relationship between parenting style measures and child social competence was nonsignificant. Children with fathers who shared parenting scored lower in social competence than other children, but this finding was not significant for African American families. These findings suggest that there are important differences in parenting styles among ethnic groups, and that the differences between mothers' and fathers' parenting styles may not be as great as formerly predicted.
Fagan, J., & Iglesias, A. (2000). The relationship between fathers' and children's communication skills and children's behavior problems: A study of Head Start children. Early Education and Development, 11, 307-320.
This study examined communication between fathers and their Head Start children and how communication interactions between fathers and children related to child behavior problems in school. The authors collected and analyzed language samples for father-child dyadic interactions using a free play situation and a situation with puzzles and pictures at the beginning of the Head Start school year. The authors then asked teachers to rate their perceptions of the children's behavior problems at the beginning and end of the school year. The results showed that father who dominate the conversation are more likely to have children with poor linguistic and conversational skills. In addition, the results showed an association between children's communicative competence and behavior problems, for both internalizing and externalizing behavior. For externalizing behavior, child communicative competence early in the year is related directly to behavior early in the year as well as later in the year. Children's linguistic skills seem to affect teacher's judgment of problem behavior at the beginning of the year, and are often judged as less socially competent by the end of the year. For internalizing behavior, communicative competence was not directly linked to behavior early in the year, but was directly linked to behavior later in the year. Child communicative competence does not seem to have an immediate impact on internalizing behavior, but rather an impact that shows up later in time. Overall, for both internalizing and externalizing behavior, child communicative competence has a direct ongoing effect on social behavior even after accounting for earlier behavior problems. These findings indicate that child communication may be used as a predictor of social behavior over time in future research.
Fairlie, R. W., & Meyer, B. D. (2000). Trends in self-employment among white and black men during the twentieth century. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 643-669.
This paper examines self-employment trends for black and white men between 1910 and 1997. The authors use data from eight decennial censuses of population for totals of 40,000 individuals of each race. Some data from the Current Population Survey are used as well. For white men, there was a clear downward trend in the number of self-employed from 1910 to 1970. In 1970, the downward trend hit the lowest point and began steadily increasing until 1990. Previous research shows that patterns of immigration and immigrant self-employment do not explain the downward and then the upward trends. Instead, immigration only dampened the decline and slightly contributed to the upturn. The decline in self-employment was due to declining self-employment in almost all industries as most sectors transitioned to large-scale, capital intensive production. In 1970, changes in technology, consumer demand, and global competition helped cause an upturn in self-employment. The data showed that black men were only a third as likely as were white men to be self-employed over the period. Black self-employment followed a similar downward trend after 1910, but continued until 1980 when it made an upturn. Black men had lower self-employment rates in all industries, which contributed to the black/white gap more that the overrepresentation of black men in low self-employment rate industries. In addition, factors such as the Great Black Migration, when African Americans moved from the southern states to the industrial north, and the educational gains made by African Americans, did not have significant effects on the self-employment gap between black and white men. An initial lack of business experience also did not seem to explain the disparity. Future research should explore factors such as asset differences, consumer and lending discrimination, and risk aversion, which may help to explain why black and white self-employment did not converged during the twentieth century.
Fergusson, D. M., Woodward, L. J. (2000). Teenage pregnancy and female educational underachievement: A prospective study of a New Zealand birth cohort. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 147-161.
This study investigated the relationship between teenage pregnancy and educational underachievement among young women. The authors used a sample of 520 young women from the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS), a longitudinal study representative of the Maori and European-descended populations in New Zealand. The researchers collected data through parent interviews, teacher assessments, child interviews, and questionnaires. The results showed a significant association between teenage pregnancy and educational underachievement, particularly for participation and achievement at high school. Women who became pregnant before age 18 were 10 times more likely to leave high school than were women who did not become pregnant. Women who were pregnant before age 18 also received poorer scores on standardized tests. The risk of educational underachievement among pregnant teenagers was evident up to age 21. Young women at risk for early pregnancy appeared to have certain characteristics in their family background, such as social disadvantage associated with young and single motherhood, lower maternal education, low socioeconomic status, and below average living standards. Teenage mothers also tended to come from adverse family circumstances, such as punitive maternal behavior, interparental conflict, and parental change. Teenage mothers were also more likely to have performed poorly in school in middle childhood and early adolescence, and more likely to have had early adolescent conduct problems and attention problems. The results also showed that in the majority of cases, the young women became pregnant after leaving school, suggesting that early school-leaving might increase the risk of pregnancy, rather than the pregnancy disrupting educational completion. The authors conclude that young women in their teens who become pregnant tend to come from disadvantaged family backgrounds and are less academically inclined, and become pregnant after leaving school. These results highlight the need to provide more support and assistance for teenage mothers, since it appears that a disadvantaged background is more disruptive to young women's education than teenage pregnancy.
Finzi, R., Cohen, O., Sapir, Y., & Weizman, A. (2000). Attachment styles in maltreated children: A comparative study. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 31(2), 113-125.
This study examines attachment styles among children of drug-using fathers, physically abused children, and neglected children. Attachment theory focuses on the impact of parent-child bonds on children's personality and behavioral development. The authors used a sample of 190 children and grouped them according to whether they were physically abused, neglected, had drug-user fathers, or not maltreated (control group.) The authors collected data through the use of questionnaires completed by the children. Physically abused children were more likely to be characterized by the avoidant attachment style, whereas neglected children were characterized by the anxious/ambivalent attachment style. Slightly over half of the children whose fathers were drug users were characterized by the secure attachment style, while the other half was characterized by the anxious/ambivalent or avoidant attachment style. Most of the children in the control group who did not experience maltreatment were characterized by the secure attachment style. The finding that over half of the children with drug-user fathers had secure attachment may indicate that these children are "super kids," or children who develop extraordinary functioning skills as a result of blurred family boundaries; perhaps having to take on "parenting" roles of others in the family. Children of physically abusive parents learn avoidant behavior in order to maintain control over their own reactions to their abusive parent, who is both a provider and a danger. Physically abused children learn the victim role as well as the role of the victimizer. Neglected children are likely to have problems in later relationships with dependency and lack of autonomy, which can lead to passive withdrawal. Other factors should be included in future research, such as affect regulation, defense mechanisms, and resiliency.
Florsheim, P. (2000). The economic and psychological dynamics of nonresident paternal involvement. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang, et al., (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 55-87). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This book chapter discusses the economic, psychological, and social-environmental factors contributing to paternal involvement among nonresidential fathers. Recent research has yielded mixed findings concerning the effects of nonresidential father involvement on child development, but many have found that the quality of paternal involvement appears to matter more than quantity. Fathers influence their children's development directly through their parenting behavior, through parenting practices specific to a father role, and as influenced by their own demographic factors such as age, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. Fathers also impact their children's development indirectly through their relationships with the children's mother. Single motherhood is often associated with lower income, which can be a risk factor for children's development, and is greatly mediated by the nonresidential father's contributions. Single mothers also are at a higher risk for psychological distress, which, in turn, affects parenting practices. The author also discusses a possible model for understanding nonresidential paternal involvement through both cultural and psychological frameworks. There is no evidence that discrepancies in the incidence of rates of marriage or out-of-wedlock birth are related to culturally-based differences in attitudes toward marriage. Instead, these differences can be attributed to discrepancies in access to economic stability, which would allow fathers to provide for their children within a traditional father role. Several psychological factors have been identified by researchers as impacting nonresidential father involvement, such as role strain, investment in offspring born to more current partners, psychological dysfunction, parenting stress, parental conflict, attachment (repetition of their own experiences of being parented), and parental aggression. Nonresidential fathers can be helped by programs that provide them with skills designed to improve their market viability and opportunity, and programs should be culturally sensitive when addressing factors affecting father involvement.
Fraser, J. A.(2000). Home visiting intervention for vulnerable families with newborns: Follow-up results of a randomized controlled trial. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(11), 1399-1429.
This study investigated the impact of a home visit program for vulnerable families with newborns, and evaluated the community utility of a screening method to identify the families and the use of predictors of risk of poor adjustment to the parenting role. The sample included 181 women with newborns, recruited from a hospital in Queensland, Australia. Women in the study completed questionnaires and participated in home visits and clinic-based services by professionals, or were part of a control group who were not visited. The results showed that the questionnaire was an effective research tool for targeting families for intervention. Women who reported child abuse and neglect risk factors were more likely to participate than those who did not report risk factors, despite being isolated and marginalized from traditional services. Retention to the project was associated with poor parental attachment to the infant, and low maternal sense of competency 2 weeks after the child's birth. Women with higher stress and depression scores in the first two weeks after birth were more likely to stay in the treatment, while younger, more mobile mothers were more likely to withdraw. Overall, women reporting early difficulties with the parenting role were more likely to continue to participate for the first 12 months. The finding that teenage mothers were less likely to stay with the program indicated that this population needs to be specifically targeted for services. The program was effective in early identification and intervention for prevention of poor parental role adjustment. The results showed that the intervention was very effective for mothers in the program at the first 6 months, but at 12 months, there were fewer differences between mothers with home visits and mothers in the control group. At 6 months, mothers in the program scored better on mood adjustment, competence with parenting, global parenting stress, maternal-infant interactions, and satisfaction with the community child health clinic. At 7 months, the intervention had reduced physical child abuse potential for both first time and experienced mothers. However, these effects decreased or disappeared at the 12- and 18-month follow-ups. Future research should examine the longer-term effects of intervention.
Gal, J., & Doron, A. (2000). Dealing with the elusive welfare-to-work issue: the case of poverty traps in Israel. Social Policy and Administration, 34(3), 253-273.
This paper focuses on the Israeli national welfare system in a discussion of poverty traps that occur in welfare states and act as disincentives to work for people in poverty. The poverty trap is described as a system that causes low-income people to lose disposable income and benefits as they increase their earnings when they move from welfare to paid work. In some countries, the poverty trap can be attributed to the interaction between benefits and the tax system, whereby poorer people are forced into a tax bracket that requires a higher percentage of their income than those in the highest-earning populations. In the Israeli system, the poverty trap results from a slightly different set of factors. Tax margins are high enough in Israel so that a greater proportion of the population pays no income tax at all. However, the welfare system has stringent work requirements coupled with National Insurance (NI) contributions and health care contributions. Health insurance is deducted from any income level, and NI contributions begin to rise at low incomes. Even more importantly, the Israeli system includes a "wage stop", or income ceiling, as part of the income support program. The wage stop, which insures that benefits cannot be received at a certain level of income, acts as a serious disincentive to work, yet is coupled with income disregards that encourage moving from welfare to work. These factors primarily affect low-income single people, couples, and couples with children, causing disincentives to work. When any of these family configurations reach a certain income, their disposable income drops perceptibly. Even couples with children, who receive higher benefits, experience a drop in disposable income when their earnings increase. For single mothers with children, the poverty trap is much more moderate because this group is granted a high tax allowance, so income does not drop as quickly and drastically as earnings increase. The Israeli case is a clear example of the problems that arise when welfare states begin to place heavy emphasis on work but continue to have built-in poverty traps within their existing systems.
Gehring, T. M., & Marti, D. (2000). Evaluation of family structures with figure placement techniques. Psychological Reports, 87(2), 664-666.
This article discusses the usefulness of figure placement techniques in studying family cohesion and hierarchy. The dimensions of cohesion and hierarchy have already been effectively used to describe family structures as a system of boundaries. Subsystems in families, such as dyads and triads, are characterized by boundaries that define the differences in behavior of the members of subsystems. Figure placement techniques can be useful in studying family boundaries in both qualitative and quantitative settings, and from inside as well as outside perspectives of families. Figure placement also allows for the use of individual or group settings and is more standardized. Figure placement techniques also have produced reliable results using questionnaires and behavioral observational methods, and have produced results which are in line with structural family theory but go further to examine power relationships between parents and children. An important aspect of this is to consider the distinct views of parents as well as those of children from the same family in nonclinical samples. Another figure placement technique, the Family System Test (FAST), examines family cohesion by assessing each family member's relation and proximity to each other hierarchically. This method also takes into account cultural differences in boundaries, which allow certain boundaries to be healthy in one cultural context and problematic in another. Further exploration of cross-cultural issues would add to the validity and usefulness of figure placement techniques.
Gonzales, H. A., Pitts, S. C., Hill, N. E., Roosa, M. W. (2000). A mediational model of the impact of interparental conflict on child adjustment in a multiethnic, low-income sample. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 365-379.
This study examined the effects of interparental conflict on children's depression and conduct disorders, as mediated by parents' acceptance, inconsistent discipline, and hostile control. The authors used a 1991 sample of 97 fourth-grade children from diverse backgrounds: 81% Mexican American, 8% African American, 6% European American, and 4% Native American. The children in the sample came from low-income backgrounds and were interviewed with their mothers regarding interparental conflict and parenting behavior. The results showed support for the hypothesis that the negative effects of interparental conflict are mediated by children's perceptions of parenting behavior. The analyses that made this association were based on children's reports of their own depressive symptoms and conduct problems. When analyses were based on maternal reports of children's symptoms, however, the same mediating effects were not found. Interparental conflict was negatively associated with children's perceptions of parental acceptance, and positively associated with perceptions of inconsistent discipline and hostile control. Overall, interparental conflict is significantly related to children's negative beliefs about the care their parents provide them. Parental acceptance and inconsistent discipline also exerted indirect effects on children's depression and conduct problems. The findings did not show hostile control to be a mediator between interparental conflict and children's depressive symptoms and conduct problems. One explanation is that harsh parenting may have an appropriate role in families who live in high-risk environments. Inconsistent discipline and hostile control were both positively associated with parental acceptance, further suggesting that these parenting dimensions may play a different role for low-income and minority families than white, middle class families. Finally, unresolved conflict was negatively associated with parental acceptance but not inconsistent discipline, while frequent conflict was positively associated with inconsistent discipline but not associated with parental acceptance. The authors suggest that interventions target the parent-child relationship in order to lessen the negative effects of interparental conflict in low-income families.
Gordon, E. W. (2000). The myths and realities of African American fatherhood. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang, et al., (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 217-232). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This book chapter examines the issues surrounding African American fatherhood within the broader context of African American men's experiences. The author argues that inequalities in access to capital resources prevent African American men from fulfilling the patriarchy-based father role of providing for, protecting, and guiding their children. Even within broad definitions of family, certain forms of capital are associated with modern family structures, such as health capital, financial capital, social capital, and human capital. African American fathers have historically been prevented from accumulating these types of capital, which has compromised their ability to provide for their families in a traditional father role. Several factors have been detrimental to black males' status and development. Precluded manhood and preempted male role responsibility, possibly resulting from close contact over the generations with white oppressors, and persisting attitudes about biogenetic factors have contributed to stereotypes about black men. Economic factors have also played a major role through ethnic minority disenfranchisement, surplus labor, changes in the means of production, and exportation of jobs to other countries. The author also notes the invisibility of black men in a society that has no real place or valued role for them, which leads to alienation, hopelessness, and depression resulting from powerlessness. In addition, African American men do not have access to the elements that command respectability, such as economic stability, technical expertise, or political power. African American men do, however, suffer from problems with reputation, as a result of narrow and stereotypical media portrayals. The author concludes that the central problem of why there are so many single mother families in the African American community is not because of ethnicity and gender, but poverty and powerlessness. African American fathers do not have equal access to the social capital and education required to provide for their families and to lead them to prosperity.
Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., Henry, D. B., Florsheim, P. (2000). Patterns of family functioning and adolescent outcomes among urban African American and Mexican American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 436-457.
This study compared family functioning and youth outcomes for African American and Mexican American families with similar socioeconomic backgrounds. The authors used data from the Chicago Youth Development Study, a longitudinal study of delinquent behavior economically disadvantaged adolescent boys. The sample for this study included 148 African American and 60 Mexican American families, who were interviewed in their homes by researchers of matching ethnicity. The findings showed differences over time in family functioning between inner-city African American and Mexican American families. African American families were more likely to be task-oriented and exceptionally functioning. Moderately functioning and struggling families were more prevalent among Mexican American. More African American families are less emotion-focused in their parenting practices than other ethnic groups, though greater diversity in family functioning patterns was found in African American families. African American families characterized as exceptional were marked by strong cohesion and beliefs about the importance of family relationships. The findings showed a higher percentage of struggling families in the Mexican American sample, perhaps because of the added pressures of acculturation and immigrant status. The authors note that despite the greater prevalence of struggling families in the Mexican American sample, the pattern occurred in less than 30% of the population. Overall, after controlling for socioeconomic status of both the African American and Mexican American samples, the relationship between family functioning over time and youth outcomes was very similar. Youth from exceptionally functioning families scored higher on outcome measures than youth from struggling families. The authors found differences between the two groups concerning education and educational aspirations. African American youth had higher educational aspirations and stronger attitudes toward school than Mexican American youth. The language barrier for Mexican American parental involvement could be a factor for this finding. There were no significant differences between the two groups in risk for either internalizing or externalizing behaviors. Time seemed to have an effect for African American adolescents' involvement in positive activities: this group's involvement dropped below Mexican Americans' involvement by the last wave of the survey. These results show that importance of studying behavior patterns over time and that exceptional family functioning may be somewhat protective against the stressors of living in a high-risk urban environment.
Grall, T. (2000). Child support for custodial mothers and fathers: 1997 (Current Population Reports, Consumer Income Series P60-212). Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce.
This article discusses child support issues for custodial mothers and fathers using data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) for 1994, 1996, and 1998. Recent research shows that although the number of custodial mothers is growing, they are still less likely than custodial are fathers to be working full time, and at the same time are becoming less likely to receive public assistance. The poverty rate for families with a noncustodial parent remains high as well. Of custodial mothers, 56% are non-Hispanic white, while 74.4% of custodial fathers; and one-quarter of custodial mothers are black, compared with 10.2% of custodial fathers. Custodial fathers are more likely to be divorced than never-married or still married. The number of custodial parents with child support agreements has grown in the last several decades, but many custodial parents do not have legal agreements, either because the noncustodial parent cannot afford to pay, or because they do not feel the need to have a legal agreement. Custodial mothers are more likely to receive child support than fathers, and the number of parents receiving the full amount due has increased in the last decade. Even so, on average, custodial parents receive only 59% of child support due. For those who receive the full amount, income is higher and poverty lower. Child support compliance is highly related to joint custody and visitation, and parents with formal agreements are more likely to receive non-cash support in addition to support paid. About one-quarter of children received health insurance from their noncustodial parents, and finally, between 1994 and 1998, the number of requests for child support assistance from welfare offices declined significantly. Future research should build on these findings to better assess the child support system.
Haapasalo, J. (2000). Young offenders' experiences of child protection services. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(3), 355-371.
This study examines the backgrounds of a group of young adult offenders, focusing on experiences with state-provided child protection services (CPS) to better understand how the timing and types of interventions affect children with unstable backgrounds. The author examined clinical data for individuals in a representative sample of young Finnish offenders born after 1971. The clinical files provided information regarding criminal records, family history of abuse, parental alcoholism and neglect, and the nature and timing of CPS interventions as they occurred over the lifespan of the offenders. The majority of the offenders had been clients of the CPS and had spent time in foster care. Most offenders had been older than 13 years of age when they had their first contact with the CPS. Most placements took place between the ages of 10 and 16. The author differentiated between one group who had experienced early-onset multiple interventions with an emphasis on foster care, and another group of 55 who had experienced less intervention and experienced it later. The latter group appeared to suffer from less serious family problems than those who had experienced more and earlier interventions. The group of offenders who had received more CPS attention at earlier ages had parents who had many psychosocial problems, including substance abuse and criminal activity, and were more likely to have been neglected. The other group with less interventions had less history of neglect but equal history of file-based physical abuse. Childhood physical abuse was not a predictor of number of CPS interventions, and maternal alcoholism was not a predictor for the number of interventions unless neglect and maltreatment were not controlled for. Mother's alcoholism was strongly related to neglect, and alcoholism of both parents increased the likelihood of being placed. Maternal alcoholism and criminality strongly predicted the amount of time spent in placement. The number of interventions increased according to criminality of the offender's father. These findings suggest that CPS interventions have a positive effect but may not be comprehensive enough to prevent antisocial behavior, and should be studied and implemented further.
Heckert, D. A., & Gondolf, E. W. (2000). Predictors of underreporting of male violence by batterer program participants and their partners. Journal of Family Violence, 15(4), 423-443.
This study examines the feasibility of predicting male and female underreporting of male violence at program intake, male-female disagreement at a 12-month follow-up, and possible predictors of underreporting measured at intake, such as demographic, relationship status, personality traits, and prior behavior. The authors use interview data from a multi-site database of batterers and their female partners which includes information from police reports, and collected reports of re-assaults after a 12-month follow-up. The sample includes 840 men, who tended to be young and of low socioeconomic status, from batterer programs from four major cities. Forty-five percent were white, 36% had more than a high school education, and 49% lived with their partners. One of the hypotheses, which predicted that men's personality traits would be the best predictors of male underreport, was not supported by the results. Male underreporting was more consistently predicted by social background and relationship variables, both at intake and follow-up. The authors tested several personality variables, none of which significantly predicted male underreporting at intake, and only two were significant at follow-up. The other hypothesis, which stated that relationship variables would be the best predictors of female underreport, was supported by the results. Relationship variables such as marital status and feelings of safety were the best predictors of female underreporting at intake. Two social background variables were predictive as well. Several men's personality variables and men's use of alcohol were predictors of underreporting, though these variables served more to influence the woman's perception of the relationship (supporting Hypothesis 2). It should be noted that for future research, systematic reporting biases may affect identification of factors predictive of re-assault, and that the scale used for this study may be more effective for general population surveys than for clinical studies.
Hickman G.P., Bartholomae S., & McKenry, P.C. (2000). Influence of parenting styles on the adjustment and academic achievement of traditional college freshmen. Journal of College Student Development, 41(1), 41-54.
This study examines how parenting styles affect the academic achievement and social adjustment of college freshmen. The authors used a sample of 101 traditional college freshmen. The sample was primarily Caucasian and female; questionnaires were completed. Overall, the results showed that parenting style did not influence the adjustment and academic achievement of college freshmen with the exception of authoritative parenting, which had a positive impact on academic achievement. Also, teenagers who grew up in a warm, emotional, communicative, and caring environment may make easier transitions to the college environment. Aptitude did not predict GPA, academic adjustment, personal-emotional adjustment, or goal commitment-institutional adjustment. Aptitude was, however, associated with overall and social adjustment of college freshmen. This finding suggests that emotional intelligence and psychosocial factors may be just as important as cognitive intelligence. Family structure was also a predictor of student adjustment to college. Students who came from divorced families had better adjustment to college, perhaps because of skills learned from the divorce or the positive aspects of being separated from a stressful family situation. Parents' education also influenced their children's college adjustment. Fathers who were more educated had a negative effect on students' personal-emotional adjustment, perhaps because they placed high expectations on their children. Students whose fathers had not gone to college had poorer goal commitment/institutional adjustment. Students' self-esteem was the greatest predictor of school outcomes, significantly influencing academic achievement, social adjustment, personal-emotional adjustment, goal commitment-institutional adjustment, and overall college adjustment. These findings suggest that more importance should be placed on factors other than academic aptitude in predicting college outcomes.
Hoffman, L. W. (2000). Maternal employment: Effects of social context. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp.147-176). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This book chapter discusses maternal employment in a larger social context and presents a study of the effects of maternal employment on a sample of elementary school children. Some of the social changes and trends that have taken place along with the rise in maternal employment include smaller families, technology allowing for less time to be spent on food preparation and housework, increases in women's education, increased life expectancy, and modification of traditional gender role expectations. Three aspects of family life seem to be the most important in mediating the effects of mothers' employment on children: fathers' role, mothers' well being, and parents' child-rearing attitudes and behaviors. The study was based on a sample of 400 families in an urban area, and was conducted through questionnaires, interviews, teacher ratings, and standard achievement test scores. The results showed that, contrary to previous findings, children of employed mothers had higher achievement test scores in school. In addition, gender roles have become less stereotyped across social class. Daughters with employed mothers were more positively assertive and less shy, and had a higher sense of efficacy. Sons of employed working class mothers also showed more positive social adjustment, while middle class boys did not seem to benefit from mother's employment. Sons and daughters of employed mothers had less traditional gender role attitudes. Girls with employed mothers were more likely to see women as just as competent in traditionally male-dominated tasks than were girls with mothers who were homemakers. The study also associated maternal employment with more active father's role in child-care, which was in turn associated with daughter's greater sense of efficacy and better academic performance. Fathers' higher involvement in child-care was also related to both girls' and boys' better test scores. For mothers' well being, full-time lower-class homemakers showed higher levels of depression, but this effect was not found for middle class homemakers. In addition, depression mediated the relationship between homemaker status and both permissive and authoritarian child rearing. Employed mothers had higher expectations for their children across social class, which mediated the relation between maternal employment and higher test scores. Employed mothers also were more likely to want their daughters to be independent than homemakers. These findings show the need for future research to place maternal employment in a larger social context.
Hout, M., & Rosen, H. (2000). Self-employment, family background, and race. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 670-692.
This study investigates how family background affects the chances for self-employment, with a focus on African Americans and Latinos and possible reasons for their lower rates of self-employment and low intergenerational pick-up rates. Data for the study came from the General Social Survey (GSS), which included interviews from a sample of 1,500 English-speaking adults in the United States. The authors used data from the 1973 through 1996 surveys. The results showed that a major factor in who becomes self-employed is father's self-employment. There is also a considerable gap among major ancestry groups between offspring of self-employed fathers and employee fathers. African Americans, Asians, and Latinos have the lowest rates of self-employment and low pick-up rates. Intergenerational persistence of self-employment is high among men of Scottish, Polish, Russian, and Jewish ancestries. Latino and African American men face several disadvantages regarding self-employment: they are less likely than other men to have self-employed fathers, are less likely to become self-employed when they have employee fathers, and are less likely to follow self-employed father in to their own self-employment. For these two groups, the rate of self-employment among men with self-employed fathers is lower than the rate of self-employment for men of European ancestry with fathers who were not self-employed. For immigrants, fathers' self-employment does not seem to raise the sons' likelihood of being self-employed. Even so, immigrants and their sons are more likely to be self-employed than third and fourth generation Americans. Occupational category of fathers also has some effect: Men from clerical, retail, and manual origins are less likely to be self-employed than sons of fathers in professional, business, and farm occupations. Family composition does not seem to affect likelihood for self-employment, and growing up in a mother-headed household does not decrease chances for self-employment. However, men from large families are less likely to be self-employed than only children are. Men who are married or have been married are more likely to be self-employed, though fathers are not more likely than were other men to be self-employed. Future research should examine in more depth why there is such a disparity between African American men and other groups, which is not adequately explained by factors such as racism, attitudes toward risk, or lack of access to capital.
Hoynes, H. W. (2000). Local labor markets and welfare spells: Do demand conditions matter? Review of Economics and Statistics, 82(3), 351-368.
This study investigates the impact of labor market conditions on participation in the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program in California. The author used a sample of 15,000 cases from the Longitudinal Database of Cases (LDB), which includes administrative records of AFDC receipt from 1987 to 1992 and characteristics of recipient families. The author compared the case data from the sample to several labor market variables. The results showed that when earnings are higher and there are more jobs available, recipients are more likely to leave and stay off welfare. When employment growth is lower, and there is a low employment-to-population ratio, and lower wage growth, recipients tend to remain longer on welfare and are less likely to leave. The results also showed that models based on employment-based measures perform better than do models based on unemployment rates when controlling for labor market conditions. A 10% increase in employment or a 3.5% reduction in the employment-to-population ratios lead to a 7-15% reduction in the chance that a family will leave AFDC within a year and a 6-15% decrease in the chance of returning to welfare within a year. These changes are typical of the recession and recovery of the 1990s. When earnings are increased by 5%, the one-year exit rate is reduced by 5-7%. Latinos, African Americans, and two-parent families are the most sensitive to changes in local labor market conditions. Overall, increases in earnings coupled with increases in employment opportunities cause an 11-12% increase in the likelihood that a welfare spell ends within a year and the odds of returning to welfare within a year are reduced by 10-11%. The author concludes from these findings that economic growth can not significantly reduce reliance on public assistance, though it can reduce the demand for welfare somewhat. However, these results suggest that labor market conditions can be informative for research about AFDC caseloads and program expenditures.
Iversen, R. R. (2000). TANF policy implementation: The invisible barrier. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, (27)2, 139-159.
This paper investigates implementation problems found in welfare-to-work programs under TANF policy in the Philadelphia area. Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) was created in 1996 in order to replace federal welfare entitlements with a program that mandates that welfare recipients work after set time limits. With the help of federal block grants, states have power to design and implement welfare-to-work programs. However, many states have reported implementation problems. The author of this paper conducted field research in four Philadelphia area programs in 1998 and 1999. The research included interviews, observations, and discussions with staff members who represented a variety of educational levels and racial/ethnic backgrounds. The findings showed that Pennsylvania's approach to implementing the TANF program was based on "quick attachment" to the workforce. The author found that this approach did not allow enough time to ensure lasting transitions from welfare to work. Organizational competence was also a problem: the state Department of Public Welfare (DPW) did not have the technology to track individuals coming on or off the welfare rolls. In addition, there were 15,000 TANF recipients who were expected to enter the welfare to work programs, and only 7,996 actually did enter the programs. The DPW was also unable to identify essential recipient characteristics of those on the welfare rolls, which meant that they could not refer individuals for appropriate services. Another problem in Philadelphia was personnel competence. Many staff who were benefits administrators before TANF were expected to become work-program specialists in a short amount of time, without the appropriate education and training. This lack of preparation led to poor communication between service agencies and "caseworkers", as benefits administrators were now called. Also, those in the new caseworker positions frequently did not notify many work program participants about benefits they could be receiving, such as childcare, which resulted in high dropout rates. Many other problems existed as well, such as with coordination of funding and funding criteria, which resulted in mismatches between participants and employer organizations. Procedural and staffing coordination also produced delays and strains as staff workers struggled to understand the array of new benefit rules and procedures. The author concludes that TANF recipients should not be penalized for delays in implementation. Time limits should be suspended until the Pennsylvania department of welfare is able to adapt to the new TANF system.
Jackson, A. P., Brooks-Gunn, J., Huang, C., & Glassman, M. (2000). Single mothers in low-wage jobs: Financial strain, parenting, and preschoolers' outcomes. Child Development, 71(5), 1409-1423.
This study investigated how maternal psychological functioning, parenting, and child development were affected by maternal education, economic conditions, and the availability of instrumental support. The authors used a sample of 188 current and former New York City welfare recipients and their preschool children, many of whom were African American. The subsample for the present study included 93 employed mothers, who were interviewed and completed questionnaires with their children. The results showed that higher maternal education predicted increased earnings, which was associated with less financial strain. Financial strain and lower earnings predicted more depressive symptoms. Women with more instrumental support suffered less financial strain, and less depressive symptoms. Therefore, there was an association between economic pressure and maternal psychological functioning, as mediated by the level of instrumental support. Financial strain was also indirectly associated with children's development, as hypothesized. Money was associated significantly with both mothers' psychological functioning and children's development. The results also showed that the association between financial strain, depressive symptoms, and parenting, affected children's behavior problems but did not seem to affect children's school readiness. Parenting quality, however, was associated with both children's behavior problems and school readiness. These findings suggest the need for policymakers to focus on the task of bringing children out of poverty, especially in the early years, because of the strong effects of poverty on parenting, and in turn, child development outcomes.
Jeynes, W. H. (2000). The effects of several of the most common family structures on the academic achievement of eighth graders. Marriage and Family Review, 30(1-2), 73-97.
This study investigates the ways in which family structure affects children's academic achievement. The sample was taken from the National Education Longitudinal Survey (NELS, 1988), a nationally representative survey of 24,599 eighth grade students. Students, parents, and teachers completed questionnaires regarding family structure, scholastic performance, and demographic characteristics, and students completed achievement tests. The findings showed that the widowed, remarried, and cohabitation family structures had the most negative effects on academic achievement. The death of a parent adversely affects children's school performance, but the effects are worsened considerably when the living parent remarries. Children living with never-married single parents had the greatest risk of declining school achievement, but when race and gender factors were added, the risk was greater for children of cohabiting parents. A possible reason for this finding is that children may respond negatively to the presence of a non-biological parent in the home. Three theoretical perspectives may explain these results. The first is the absent parent perspective, which suggests that children are negatively affected by the absence of one parent, either because of death, divorce, or parental remarriage. The socioeconomic perspective focuses on the drop in family income that occurs after marital disruption, and has been shown to have serious negative consequences for children. The non-parental adjustment perspective focuses on past research that finds that children must make adjustments to the addition of a caregiver who is not a biological parent, and these adjustments predict negative school performance and other developmental problems. The findings of this study indicate the need to study a broader host of factors that may mediate the influence of family structure on children's achievement and well being.
Kelly, J. B. (2000). Children's adjustment in conflicted marriage and divorce: A decade review of research. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 963-973.
This article reviews research from the 1990s concerning the effects of divorce and marital conflict on children's adjustment. Several studies have shown that marital conflict is an important predictor of child adjustment, often affecting children years before divorce or separation occurs. Children of marriages with high levels of conflict have shown symptoms such as conduct disorders, antisocial behaviors, peer difficulty and academic achievement problems, symptoms which are very similar to those found in children of divorce. High intensity conflict has been associated with anxiety and insecure attachment in young children, while hostile conflict styles have been associated with externalizing and internalizing behavior in children. Several researchers have identified buffers against the negative consequences of growing up with high parental conflict, such as sibling support, parental warmth, having a good relationship with at least one parent, and peer support. Researchers have also differentiated between direct and indirect effects of marital conflict. Direct negative effects include children's modeling of parental behaviors, while indirect effects occur when high levels of parental conflict negatively affect parenting behaviors. Children of divorce are also at risk for adjustment and achievement problems, including externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Children of divorce are often adversely affected by a decline in their standard of living after divorce, and are more at risk for drug use, lower academic performance and behavior problems. However, divorced children whose fathers remain involved with their school activities have better outcomes. Another major finding was that young adults whose high-conflict parents divorced were better off than were young adults whose high-conflict parents did not divorce. The research also shows a decrease in the number of children who have zero contact with their fathers, although contact still tends to decline as the children grow older. Mothers' attitudes strongly determined the effectiveness of post-divorce father involvement, and quality of father contact was more important than quantity. Joint custody led to better child outcomes overall. A growing number of interventions have been effective in reducing the adverse effects of divorce on children, such as divorce education programs which inform parents of the risks of divorce to children. Divorce and custody mediation has helped to reduce conflict between parents and should continue to be made available to all parents going through divorce or separation.
Kim, S. Y., & Ge, X. J. (2000). Parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 420-435.
This study investigated the relationship between parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese American families. The authors administered questionnaires to a sample of 95 adolescents, 86 mothers, and 84 fathers from Chinese American families living in northern California. The majority of the parents were immigrants, while most of the adolescents had been born in the United States, and the families were of working class to middle-class backgrounds. The findings showed that in their parenting practices, Chinese American parents who use inductive reasoning are more likely to monitor the activities of their adolescents, while parents who use harsh discipline are less likely to monitor their adolescents and less likely to use inductive reasoning in their parenting practices. Chinese American parents' depressive symptoms were also significantly associated with less effective parenting practices. Ineffective parenting practices, were, in turn, related to what was perceived by adolescents, which affected adolescents' own depressive symptoms. Therefore, parenting practices in Chinese American families are significantly related to adolescents' depressive symptoms. Adolescents' perceptions of inductive reasoning and high parental monitoring are related to their depressive symptoms, and adolescents' perceptions of harsh parental discipline were significantly related to their depressive symptoms. Family income and education were associated with Chinese American fathers' depressive symptoms but not mothers depressive symptoms. Family income and education were, however, related significantly to mothers' parenting practices: less harshness and higher degrees of monitoring and inductive reasoning characterized the parenting practices of mothers with higher income and education. Mothers' immigrant status was also related to adolescent depressive symptoms. The authors did not find significant gender differences in adolescents' depressive symptoms. The authors stress the need to design intervention programs with multilingual staff, which would provide support and education about parenting practices for Chinese American families.
Klawitter, M., Plotnick, R. D., & Edwards, M. E. (2000). Determinants of initial entry onto welfare by young women. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 19(4), 527-546.
This study examines the circumstances of young women's initial entry into welfare. The authors use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY), a nationally representative sample of young men and women. The sample for the present study included 2,153 women aged 14 to 16 in 1979; the participants responded to survey questions regarding their participation in Aid for Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). The results showed a positive association between the presence of an AFDC program and welfare entry. However, there was little support for the idea that higher welfare benefits encourage earlier entry into the program. Financial or other incentives for entry into welfare have varied effects on the timing or extent of welfare participation. The results also showed that living with a more educated mother decreases the likelihood of receiving AFDC, as does living for a longer period with both parents as a child. Growing up with more siblings increased the chances of entering the AFDC program, as did growing up in a poor family. Women with more positive attitudes toward school, as well as those women with greater aversion toward welfare, were less likely to enter AFDC. Women with less traditional attitudes towards gender roles and women's work were more likely to go on AFDC, though this result was conditional on pregnancy. Women with childhood religious affiliations were less likely to receive AFDC than were women who grew up with no religious affiliation. Black and Hispanic women, after controlling for other characteristics, were more likely to go on AFDC than were women of other races and ethnicities. The results suggest that entry into welfare is not as affected by the financial or other incentives associated with welfare. School-related factors may offer the best solutions to reducing early entry into welfare.
Kluwer, E. S., Heesink, J. A. M., & Van de Vliert, E. (2000). The division of labor in close relationships: An asymmetrical conflict issue. Personal Relationships, 7(3), 263-282.
This paper presents findings from two studies for an investigation of the division of labor in close relationships and the use of conflict interactions in either changing or maintaining gendered division of labor. Study 1 used a sample of 121 husbands and 141 wives; and Study 2 used a different sample of 128 couples. The authors conducted a survey, which asked participants to respond to scenarios and questions pertaining to division of household chores, childcare, and paid work outside the home. The results for Study 1 showed that both husbands and wives reported more conflict over housework than childcare or paid work, and that wives were more likely to desire a change than husbands were. Both wives and husbands also reported more wife-demand/husband-withdraw interaction than vice-versa, but only when the wife was the complainant. The authors maintained that the defendants usually held an advantage over the complainants because the defendants wanted to maintain the status quo. Therefore, defendants determined the outcome more than complainants did. However, the results also showed that complainants were more likely to reach their goal when the conflict concerned their own stereotypical domain. Study 2 again showed that demand/withdraw patterns were most likely to occur over housework. Women appeared to be less satisfied with the division of housework than men, and men were more likely to try to maintain the status quo, resulting in conflict. Accomplishing change is difficult because complainants must go against the spirit of the times and work against relationship inertia, or slowness in adapting to new circumstances. On the other hand, when women were in the role of the complainant, they were more likely to reach their goals, but only in conflicts concerning housework or childcare, and husbands were more likely to reach their goal in conflicts over paid work. These findings provide a structural/behavioral explanation for why stereotyped division of labor persists among men and women. Demand/withdraw patterns that escalate conflict and status quo maintenance should be recognized as important barriers to gender role changes.
Kulik, L. (2000). The impact of education and family attributes on attitudes and responses to unemployment among men and women. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 27(2), 161-183.
This study focuses on three aspects of unemployment in determining differences in work attitudes among Israeli men and women: reasons for rejecting potential employment, job search intensity, and responses to unemployment. A sample of 594 unemployed Israeli men and women participated in the study, and the author collected data through the use of structured questionnaires. The findings showed that overall, there were significant differences in men's and women's gender attitudes toward unemployment, and education level did not seem to affect these gender differences. There were some similarities, however: both men and women who were married were more likely to reject potential employment because it conflicted with family responsibilities, or because of adverse work conditions, than men and women who were never-married. Regardless of gender, respondents with larger numbers of children were more likely to reject employment for family reasons. The majority of women perceived themselves as responsible for the family, while men adopted the role of family supporter. Never-married women also stated they would reject job opportunities for family reasons. Married women were more likely to reject masculine-typed jobs than men were to reject feminine-typed jobs. Unemployed men were less likely overall to reject employment, perhaps because of their commitment to the family role. There were no other gender differences in responses to unemployment except for women's being slightly more likely to report a decline in health. Stress responses to unemployment were more affected by family status than gender. Regardless of gender, widowed-divorce respondents suffered the most as a result of unemployment. Married respondents reported more financial strain than other groups, and respondents with lower levels of education reported more psychological stress, financial strain, and declines in health than were those with more education. The author suggests that stress symptoms of unemployment be treated by individual and group counseling available through community centers.
Kulik, L. (2000). The impact of gender and age on attitudes and reactions to unemployment: The Israeli case. Sex Roles, 43(1-2), 85-104.
This study examined the ways in which gender and age predict attitudes and reactions to joblessness among a sample of unemployed individuals in Israel. The sample included 613 men and women from four different age groups. Most participants had been born in Israel but a small percentage had been born in Europe, Asia, Africa, the former USSR, and the United States. Participants responded to questionnaires regarding their reasons for rejecting employment, as well as their attitudes toward unemployment. Results showed that age and gender did not predict attitudes and reactions to unemployment, but that there were few interactions between gender and marital status. Gender differences were evident in relation to unemployment, but these differences were not related to age and were partially affected by marital status. Traditional gender role attitudes were found among unmarried young people, who were not yet even in such roles themselves. Women in all age groups and marital situations tended to turn down job opportunities which would clash with their family responsibilities, and they also turned down jobs that were considered masculine, or had adverse working conditions. Men, on the other hand, were much more likely to accept feminine-typed jobs than women were to accept masculine jobs, and men were more willing to accept jobs that appeared less attractive. These findings suggest that gender role expectations cause men to be more active in job hunting, and less selective, because of their breadwinner socialization. There were not significant gender differences found in positive or negative reactions to unemployment, though women reported more health problems than men did. Age was not a significant predictor for rejecting employment, though older men were slightly less selective about employment, and younger men were more likely to reject employment with insufficient pay. Future research should continue to focus on factors such as age and gender in determining how to ease the stress of unemployment in the most effective way.
Leathers, S. J., & Kelley, M. A. (2000). Unintended pregnancy and depressive symptoms among first-time mothers and fathers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(4), 523-530.
This study investigated the effects of unintended first-time pregnancy on the mental health of cohabiting couples. The sample was racially heterogeneous and included 124 cohabiting couples who were interviewed before and after their first child was born. The results showed that almost 32% of pregnancies were unintended, even though most of the couples in the sample were married and had insurance for pre- and post-natal care. Most of the pregnancies were mistimed rather than unwanted; even so, they influenced women's risk for postpartum depression. Men's perception that a pregnancy was unintended strongly predicted maternal depressive symptoms. On the other hand, when women reported an unintended pregnancy, they were less likely to be at risk for depression. Women who had intended to become pregnant, when their partners had not, appeared to be at the greatest risk for depression. Most couples agreed whether or not the pregnancy was intended, but about 14% of women stated that a pregnancy was intended while their partners stated otherwise. These women were at a significantly higher risk of postpartum depression. For men, there was some support for the hypothesis that depressive symptoms could be explained by prior problems in the relationship and lack of social support. For women, however, these factors did not explain the association between unintended pregnancy and depression. There was no support for the hypothesis that men who had not intended pregnancy might be less involved or unhappy with the parenting role, causing more maternal strain. These findings suggest that the fact that unintended pregnancy occurs at such a high rate even in a married and insured population should indicate that preconceptual care and education should be available for all women. Further research should focus on the significance of the male partner's perceptions in determining women's postpartum depression.
Lee, K., Carswell, J. J., & Allen, N. J. (2000). A meta-analytic review of occupational commitment: Relations with person- and work-related variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), 799-811.
This study examined the relationship between person- and work- related variables and occupational commitment (OC). Data were collected through the use of database searches of research studies related to commitment, occupation, profession, career, and work, and analyzed through the use of Hunter and Schmidt's 1990 meta-analytic procedure of aggregated correlations. The results showed that demographic variables did not correlate significantly with occupational commitment. Occupational commitment was unrelated to gender, number of dependents, or marital status. Income was the variable that appeared most related to occupational commitment, perhaps because of the higher self-esteem of persons earning more. The hypothesis that occupational commitment was more related to work ethic than job involvement was not supported. Occupational commitment also seems to be affected by reactions to a particular job. The results also did not show a distinction between professional and nonprofessional occupational commitment, contrary to hypothesis. Locus of control was moderately correlated with occupational commitment: individuals with external locus of control had lower occupational commitment than those with internal locus of control. There was a strong relationship between occupational commitment and affective organizational commitment. There was a stronger relation between organizational and occupational commitment for professionals working in a corresponding organization than for those working in a non-corresponding organization. Occupational commitment also was weakly related to continuance commitment to the organization. The variable most strongly related to occupational commitment was occupational turnover intention, as hypothesized. The relation between occupational commitment and organizational turnover intention was mediated by occupational turnover intention, and occupational turnover intention was significantly related to organizational turnover intention. Occupational commitment was strongly related to occupational turnover intention for professional employees. Occupational commitment was moderately and positively related to supervisors' ratings of performance. These results suggest the importance of occupational turnover intention as a focus for future research.
Lerner, J. V., & Noh, E. R. (2000). Maternal employment influences on early adolescent development: A contextual view. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp.121-145). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This chapter examines the ways in which maternal employment influences parenting and young adolescent development. Maternal employment should be viewed in the context of the growth and development that occurs during adolescence, which has lasting significance as adolescents grow older. Most mothers combine the roles of mother, housekeeper, employee, and child-care provider, whether they are married or single. There are also considerable differences across racial-ethnic lines concerning maternal employment: African American women, for example, are more likely to work full time than white or Hispanic women, but are more likely to receive social support from family and friends. Another important factor is the timing of mother's employment and its effects on the development of young adolescents. Since adolescents are going through complex changes, they often need secure home environments, which could be affected by whether a mother works full- or part-time. Many mothers enter the labor force either because of economic need or personal fulfillment, and children are greatly affected by mothers' moods, satisfaction, and interaction with the family as related to her work outside the home. Mothers' employment also affects children's relationships with both mother and father. Mothers' stress has been shown to affect parenting, causing the mother to be less accepting, which, in turn, causes more depression in the adolescent. The relationship between maternal employment and adolescents' school performance is complex and conflicting, but mothers' mood, satisfaction, and interactions with adolescents seem to affect school performance to varying degrees. Some research shows that employed mothers tend to be happier, more satisfied, and likely to encourage independence in their children, though it is important to keep in mind that adolescents need supervision. Some research shows that adolescent of employed mothers are more socially well adjusted, have higher career aspirations, and less stereotyped gender role expectations. Other research shows, however, that maternal education may better predict these outcomes. As a policy issue, maternal employment is greatly affected by the growing numbers of single parents, options for flexible work arrangements, and child care options.
Lev-Wiesel, R. (2000). The effect of children's sleeping arrangements (communal vs. familial) on fatherhood among men in an Israeli kibbutz. Journal of Social Psychology, 140(5), 580-588.
This study investigated how children's sleeping arrangements in a kibbutz affected fathers' involvement with their children as well as fathers' parenting satisfaction. The sample included 40 fathers from an Israeli kibbutz that had changed from communal to familial sleeping arrangements in 1990. Of the 40 fathers in the sample, 15 had children who slept in a familial arrangement, and 25 slept in a communal arrangement. Participants filled out questionnaires regarding demographic information, sleeping arrangement variables, and father involvement and satisfaction variables. The findings showed that children's sleeping arrangements affected fathers' involvement with their children and their level of satisfaction with fatherhood. Fathers whose children slept in a familial arrangement were more involved with their children's lives, and were more likely to engage in parenting activities traditionally associated with the mother's role such as helping with homework and listening to the child's problems with friends and school. There also appeared to be an association between the amount of time kibbutz fathers spent with their children and their overall level of satisfaction in the father role. Of the fathers who preferred that their children be reared in a communal sleeping arrangement, 71.4% were older than 50 years of age. This finding probably reflects the fact that many of these older men had been fathers under the communal system and were accustomed to it. The fathers who preferred familial arrangements were the majority, and were under 50 years old and were more likely to express a sense of personal fulfillment from fatherhood. Overall, the results suggest that fathers' level of involvement with their children may be closely related to their enjoyment of the father role. Future research should focus on this finding as a possible path toward greater sharing of family labor.
Lindsey, E., & Mize, J. (2000). Parent-child physical and pretense play: Links to children's social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46(4), 565-591.
This study examines the connection between parent-child pretense and physical play and children's social competence. The sample consisted of 54 mothers and 36 fathers and their children. The majority of the families were European American and middle to upper class. Parents completed questionnaires and participated in videotaped interactions with their children in pretense-oriented sessions (using toys such as blocks) and physical-oriented sessions (using bats and balls). The most consistent correlation between parent-child play and children's social competence was found in parent-child mutual compliance, or balance between parent and child interaction in the play sessions. Mother-child mutual compliance during both the physical and pretense sessions was associated with children's social competence as reported by teachers. Mutual compliance between children and fathers was associated with children's peer acceptance. The results also showed that parental involvement in both pretense and physical play was associated with children's social competence. Mother involvement in pretense play was related to girls' competence and peer acceptance as reported by teachers, and father involvement in pretense play was associated with general competence as reported by teachers. No connections were found between joint parent-child physical play and children's social competence. Pretense play seemed to make more of an impact on children's competence scores than physical play. Children's social competence as measured by peers was also related to children's emotional knowledge. Balanced levels of compliance in mother-son dyads on pretense play predicted higher emotional knowledge in boys, and father involvement and balanced compliance during physical play and pretense play predicted boy's hig

Research Reports and News Posted February 2001:

Fathers--Research

Children and Families

CASA National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse VI: Teens, National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, February 21, 2001.

Press Release Excerpt:

For the complete Press Release, visit the CASA web site. For a copy of this report contact Lynn Galligan at 212-841-5227.

The Right Start: Conditions of Babies and Their Families Across the Nation and in America's Largest Cities, Annie E. Casey Foundation and Child Trends, February 20, 2001.

Press Release Excerpt:

For online access to the data and findings from this report, visit the Annie E. Casey Foundation web site or the Child Trends web site.

Trends in the Well-Being of America's Children & Youth 2000, U.S Department of Health and Human Services, January 2001.

Introduction Excerpt:

To obtain a copy of this publication, contact the U.S. Government Printing Office at bookstore.gpo.gov, or call (202)-512-1800.

TUNE IN: New Mexico Attitudes on Sex Education, New Mexico Teen Pregnancy Coalition, October, 2000.

Excerpts:

For the complete report in PDF format, visit the NMTP web site.

Who's Caring for Our Youngest Children? Child Care Patterns of Infants and Toddlers, Jennifer Ehrle and Gina Adams, The Urban Institute; Kathryn Tout, Child Trends; Urban Institute, January 2001.

Executive Summary--Excerpt:

Data and Methods

For a copy of the complete report, visit the Urban Institute web site.

Child Care Expenses of America's Families, Linda Giannarelli and James Barsimantov, Urban Institute, December 2000.

Introduction--Excerpt:

For a copy of the complete report, visit the Urban Institute web site.

Welfare Reform

The Status of TANF Leavers In The District of Columbia: Final Report, Gregory Acs and Pamela Loprest, Urban Institute, January 3, 2001

Executive Summary Excerpt:

For a copy of the complete report, visit the Urban Institute web site.

New Abstracts from NCOFF

Fox, G. L., Sayers, J., & Bruce. C. (forthcoming). Beyond bravado: Redemption and rehabilitation in the fathering accounts of men who batter. Marriage and Family Review .

Barnes, G. M., Reifman, A. S., Farrell, M. P., & Dintcheff, B. A. (2000). The effects of parenting on the development of adolescent alcohol misuse: A six-wave latent growth model. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 175-186.

Barth, R. P., Miller, J. M. (2000). Building effective post-adoption services: What is the empirical foundation? Family Relations, 49(4), 447-455

Bittman, M., & Goodin, R. E. (2000). An equivalence scale for time. Social Indicators Research, 52(3), 291-311.

Buchanan, A., Brinke, J. T., & Flouri, E. (2000). Parental background, social disadvantage, public "care," and psychological problems in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1415-1423.

Buchanan. C. M. (2000). The impact of divorce on adjustment during adolescence. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp. 179-215). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Buehler, C., & Pasley, K. (2000). Family boundary ambiguity, marital status, and child adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20(3), 281-308.

Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 467-488.

Chao, R. K. (2000). Cultural explanations for the role of parenting in the school success of Asian-American children. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp. 333-364). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Chay, K. Y., & Lee, D. S. (2000). Changes in relative wages in the 1980s: Returns to observed and unobserved skills and black-white wage differentials. Journal of Econometrics, 99(1), 1-38.

Cooper, H., & Lindsay, J. J. (2000). Homework in the home: How student, family, and parenting-style differences relate to the homework process. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(4), 464-487.

Cunningham, C. E., Boyle, M., Offord, D., Racine, Y., Hundert, J., Secord, M., & McDonald, J. (2000). Tri-ministry study: Correlates of school-based parenting course utilization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 928-933.

Davis, B., Sheeber, L., Hops, H., & Tildesley, E. (2000). Adolescent responses to depressive parental behaviors in problem-solving interactions: Implications for depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 451-465.

Dowdney, L. (2000). Annotation: Childhood bereavement following parental death. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 41(7), 819-830.

Eamon, M. K. (2000). Structural model of the effects of poverty on externalizing and internalizing behaviors of four- to five-year-old children. Social Work Research, 24(3), 143-154.

Fagan, J. (2000). African American and Puerto Rican American parenting styles, paternal involvement, and Head Start children's social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46(4), 592-612.

Fagan, J., & Iglesias, A. (2000). The relationship between fathers' and children's communication skills and children's behavior problems: A study of Head Start children. Early Education and Development, 11, 307-320.

Fairlie, R. W., & Meyer, B. D. (2000). Trends in self-employment among white and black men during the twentieth century. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 643-669.

Fergusson, D. M., Woodward, L. J. (2000). Teenage pregnancy and female educational underachievement: A prospective study of a New Zealand birth cohort. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 147-161.

Finzi, R., Cohen, O., Sapir, Y., & Weizman, A. (2000). Attachment styles in maltreated children: A comparative study. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 31(2), 113-125.

Florsheim, P. (2000). The economic and psychological dynamics of nonresident paternal involvement. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang, et al., (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 55-87). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Fraser, J. A.(2000). Home visiting intervention for vulnerable families with newborns: Follow-up results of a randomized controlled trial. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(11), 1399-1429.

Gal, J., & Doron, A. (2000). Dealing with the elusive welfare-to-work issue: the case of poverty traps in Israel. Social Policy and Administration, 34(3), 253-273.

Gehring, T. M., & Marti, D. (2000). Evaluation of family structures with figure placement techniques. Psychological Reports, 87(2), 664-666.

Gonzales, H. A., Pitts, S. C., Hill, N. E., Roosa, M. W. (2000). A mediational model of the impact of interparental conflict on child adjustment in a multiethnic, low-income sample. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 365-379.

Gordon, E. W. (2000). The myths and realities of African American fatherhood. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang, et al., (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 217-232). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., Henry, D. B., Florsheim, P. (2000). Patterns of family functioning and adolescent outcomes among urban African American and Mexican American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 436-457.

Grall, T. (2000). Child support for custodial mothers and fathers: 1997 (Current Population Reports, Consumer Income Series P60-212). Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce.

Haapasalo, J. (2000). Young offenders' experiences of child protection services. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(3), 355-371.

Heckert, D. A., & Gondolf, E. W. (2000). Predictors of underreporting of male violence by batterer program participants and their partners. Journal of Family Violence, 15(4), 423-443.

Hickman G.P., Bartholomae S., & McKenry, P.C. (2000). Influence of parenting styles on the adjustment and academic achievement of traditional college freshmen. Journal of College Student Development, 41(1), 41-54.

Hoffman, L. W. (2000). Maternal employment: Effects of social context. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp.147-176). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Hout, M., & Rosen, H. (2000). Self-employment, family background, and race. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 670-692.

Hoynes, H. W. (2000). Local labor markets and welfare spells: Do demand conditions matter? Review of Economics and Statistics, 82(3), 351-368.

Iversen, R. R. (2000). TANF policy implementation: The invisible barrier. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, (27)2, 139-159.

Jackson, A. P., Brooks-Gunn, J., Huang, C., & Glassman, M. (2000). Single mothers in low-wage jobs: Financial strain, parenting, and preschoolers' outcomes. Child Development, 71(5), 1409-1423.

Jeynes, W. H. (2000). The effects of several of the most common family structures on the academic achievement of eighth graders. Marriage and Family Review, 30(1-2), 73-97.

Kelly, J. B. (2000). Children's adjustment in conflicted marriage and divorce: A decade review of research. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 963-973.

Kim, S. Y., & Ge, X. J. (2000). Parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 14(3), 420-435.

Klawitter, M., Plotnick, R. D., & Edwards, M. E. (2000). Determinants of initial entry onto welfare by young women. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 19(4), 527-546.

Kluwer, E. S., Heesink, J. A. M., & Van de Vliert, E. (2000). The division of labor in close relationships: An asymmetrical conflict issue. Personal Relationships, 7(3), 263-282.

Kulik, L. (2000). The impact of education and family attributes on attitudes and responses to unemployment among men and women. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 27(2), 161-183.

Kulik, L. (2000). The impact of gender and age on attitudes and reactions to unemployment: The Israeli case. Sex Roles, 43(1-2), 85-104.

Leathers, S. J., & Kelley, M. A. (2000). Unintended pregnancy and depressive symptoms among first-time mothers and fathers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(4), 523-530.

Lee, K., Carswell, J. J., & Allen, N. J. (2000). A meta-analytic review of occupational commitment: Relations with person- and work-related variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), 799-811.

Lerner, J. V., & Noh, E. R. (2000). Maternal employment influences on early adolescent development: A contextual view. In Resilience Across Contexts: Family, Work, Culture, and Community (pp.121-145). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Lev-Wiesel, R. (2000). The effect of children's sleeping arrangements (communal vs. familial) on fatherhood among men in an Israeli kibbutz. Journal of Social Psychology, 140(5), 580-588.

Lindsey, E., & Mize, J. (2000). Parent-child physical and pretense play: Links to children's social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46(4), 565-591.